lose it in the struggle; and Schiller has rightly

said,

"Vor dem freien Manne erzittert nicht:

Vor dem Sclaven wenn er die Kette bricht!"

Such was the political state of Germany at the close of the fifteenth century. A cursory view of its moral and intellectual state at the same period will not be void of interest.

We have seen that the fifteenth century is among the most fruitful in important events of any in the history of European culture; and Germany was, during this period, well prepared for a general mental revolution. The discovery of America did, indeed, turn the attention of men to the wonderful appearance of a new part of the world, as it were magically rising from the waters; yet this event, however closely it might be connected with the progress of some branches of science, as geography and natural history, affected at least not immediately the interests of the commonweal of Germany, being a central country of Europe. But the revived study of the classical languages and wisdom, which was pursued with a zeal till then unknown, and materially promoted by the number of Greek scholars who took shelter in Italy after the Turkish conquest of Constantinople, opened a lovely vista to the plains of science, perceptible only to the eye of the soul. Germany, in a particular manner, participated in this spiritual movement. It was the assiduous study of the Greek authors, sacred and profane, that furnished the

weapons with which the great Reformers, Luther, Melanchthon, Zwinglius, Calvin, and others, fought and discomfited the hydra of hierarchy. Laurentius Valla in Italy, Budeus in France, and Collet in England, were either precursors or co-operators of John Reuchlin and Erasmus of Rotterdam in the diffusion of the taste for classical study. Through the exertions of these great men, the dust of scholastic philosophy, at the universities of Paris, Prague, and Bologna, was about to be removed; yet we should remember, that these exertions were directed solely to the refinement of taste, and the acquisition of the classical wisdom of the Greeks and Romans: for, though it be true that the degraded state of the Church, and particularly the despicable life of the monks, were attacked, both seriously and in satire; still this was done, more on account of the ignorance and tastelessness of the clergy, than of their being a papal means for obstructing the rays of reason and enlightenment. Let, however, the motives of these scholars have been what they may, yet intellect, giving a critical formation to taste, prepared for the awakening of reason, and for the triumph of that belief which was to be founded thereon.

At the German universities of Prague, Freiburg, Greifswald, Basel, and Heidelberg, the study of the classics was pursued with unremitting diligence.. The barbarous writing of the middle ages gave place to the polished style of Cicero and Quinctilian; and learned treatises were written on Greek profane

authors, who had been, till lately, unknown even by name. The fathers of the Church-especially those who had written in Greek-were studied and printed; yet all this, while it prepared, cannot be said to have produced the Reformation. To the people, classical culture still continued foreign; and for many reasons, only one of which we shall here mention-namely, that these objects of taste and scientific research were treated in a language unknown to the nation generally. Had Luther addressed the people in Latin, either by word or writing, his threats and exhortations would never have been dangerous to the pope. Something, however, there was, at this period, which the people did understand the gross immorality and debasement in which the catholic clergy was sunk, the monasteries being mere seminaries of iniquitous excess. It is generally known what revolting facts relative to monasteries were brought to light in England, when Henry the Eighth, eager for their treasures, stretched forth his powerful arm against them. Of the monastic life in Europe, at the period of the Reformation, a judgment may be formed from the expressions of Erasmus, who, himself educated in a monastery, spoke from actual experience, but was not an adherent of the reformed belief. I should mention, that this passage from Erasmus is found in his treatise De Contemptu Mundi, which was published previously to the Reformation. His fear of men, and his detestation of Luther, made him pro

nounce more mildly on the monastic life, in his later writings. His sentiments are as follows:

"Monasteries," he says,

66

are abysses whence Many do not descend them

all escape is hopeless. gradually, but throw themselves headlong down. In former times, monasteries were nothing more than the solitary abodes of honest men, who, disgusted by the vices with which the yet half-pagan world was stained, sought secluded places, where they might lead a more simple and holy life. A monk was only a virtuous Christian. But now the monasteries are no longer solitudes-they are the intestines of the world, and schools of vice. People to whom we can scarcely allow the prudence sufficient for regulating a kitchen have now the administration of the Church confided, or rather betrayed, to them. Many of them migrate to the monasteries, in order to live more at ease, and gratify their appetites. Those who by necessity would have accustomed themselves to domestic life and industry, here lead a lazy and profligate life. Those who, on account of their low birth and inability, would have played indifferent parts in the world, here, after having lauded poverty, lead the life of satraps, and indulge in princely splendours. Those who, content with one wife, must have borne the yoke of matrimony, now, without restriction, proceed from one excess to another. Chance leads many to the monastery; others are driven thither by disappointed love, by the dread of storms, by sickness and the danger of death; and

not a few by superstition, and an ignorance of what constitutes true Christianity."

In many of his other works Erasmus has attacked the monastic life with equal scorn and sarcasm, as did many of the champions of moral purity: the learned Italian, Laurentius Valla, for instance, long before the Reformation, and during the progress of that event; Thomas Murner, Ulrich von Hutten, and others. But the evil was not confined to the monks; the rest of the clergy, abbots, bishops, and archbishops, were equally demoralized, and their lives were in no way calculated to serve as models for christian imitation. The halo which had formerly surrounded the reverend fathers was extinguished by the blasts of their lust and extravagance; nor could the thunders of excommunication, when wielded by an unholy hand, have any terrors for those who began to draw comparisons between the consecration of a priest, and his want of sanctity. The papal see itself had, if possible, a still worse reputation with the people of Germany, than the dispensers of its will, who have been just described. In Italy, where the proceedings of the papal court could be closely observed, all its faults and weaknesses were indeed discovered and ridiculed, but not harshly treated, because the popes, heedless of their own or others' moral purity, yet encouraged splendour and refinement. The sums which they extorted from foreign nations were employed for the embellishment, not of Rome only, but of all Italy. Poets and artists were retained