fruit. It would be beyond the extent of this introductory sketch to show the inspiriting influence Bürger's marvellous ballad exercised in this, and other countries outside Germany. Among the Teutonic nations in particular it struck a sympathetic chord, which circumstance may serve as an additional proof of the close affinity between German and English poetry. Bürger's Lenore may therefore claim alike the merit of having called the world's attention to German literature at a time when it began budding forth luxuriantly, and of having raised the ballad almost everywhere in public estimation, at a time when it was despised by pedantic critics, who confused the poetical ballad with the vulgar street-ballad, and when Dr. Johnson's wellknown squib was in everybody's mind. It is therefore, we believe, no exaggeration to assert that whilst the ballad as such had before been considered as the Cinderella of literature, it now became gradually 'the favourite child of poetry.'

Bürger himself continued most successfully to cultivate the branch of poetry in which he had suddenly gained a world-wide renown. He wrote several original ballads, such as the Wilde Jäger and Das Lied vom braven Mann, which, though not equal in poetical grandeur and dramatic force to his Lenore, are masterpieces in themselves. He also adapted some ballads from Percy's Reliques, the most prominent of which is King John and the Abbot of Canterbury.* Unfortunately Bürger not only did not keep up to the high standard of his first narrative poems, but his muse often degenerated into the tone of a Bänkselsänger. Still he was recognized as a master of the ballad, even by Goethe, who missed in him the pure ethical element, and by Schiller, who, whilst censuring him in his well-known criticism,† because he did not 'idealize' *See p. 6 in this volume.

"Ueber Bürgers Gedichte."-Allgem. Lit.-Zeitung, Jan. 15, 1791.

his subjects, still declared 'that in the department of the ballad no other German poet will easily surpass him.' The two great German poets did, however, pay a still higher tribute to the genius of Bürger as a balladist by following his example. Goethe, in particular, inspired by Homer and Ossian's poems, and enlightened by Herder as to the true worth of the Volkspoesie, partly through his personal intercourse with that profound critic, and partly through the latter's collection of Volkslieder of various nations, speedily caught up the spirit of popular poetry.*

As the first gem in Goethe's cycle of narrative poems we must consider his symbolical ballad, Das Veilchen. It is the only pre-Lenore ballad of any importance, but then it is far more lyrical than narrative. His celebrated song, Mignon, though placed formally among the ballads, has a still more pronounced lyrical character, and has therefore been inserted in a collection of purely lyrical poems.† The romantic ballad, Der König in Thule, though written shortly after Bürger's great ballad, may also be considered as a perfectly original creation, quite independent of any alien suggestion or inspiration. The stamp of originality is, in fact, impressed upon all his subsequent ballads, both as regards form and substance, and even for his Erlkönig he is indebted only slightly to an external impulse furnished by a specimen in the above-mentioned Volkslieder of Herder. Like every man of genius he went his own way; he neither adopted nor imitated

*The above-mentioned collection was first published in 1778. It contains translations-mostly made by Herder-of songs of "civilized and uncivilized nations," and first bore the simple title of Volkslieder. In 1807 the latter was changed into the affected title of, Stimmen der Völker in Liedern. Herder himself did not excel as an original poet, but his adaptations from foreign poetry are almost unmatched, and read like original compositions.

+ See Deutsche Lyrik, p. 106.

See Nos. VI. and VII. in this volume, and Notes.

other models, but created himself standard models for imitation. His group of ballads, which extends over a period of about half a century, is, above all, distinguished by clearness of meaning, unaffected simplicity, transparent perspicuity of language, and, in general, also by a cheerful brightness What heightens the impression produced by Goethe's ballads upon the reader is the circumstance that, although they do not fully share the dramatic vivacity of those of Bürger, they all possess continuous dramatic action, which is never retarded by reflections or interpolated episodes, and they excel most other narrative poems by a naturalness of exposition which makes them appear as poetical pictures finished to perfection. All Goethe's ballads, which offer a great variety, are admired and cherished by the well-educated, whilst three of them, Der Erlkönig, Der Fischer, and Der Sänger, have become universally popular.

If, however, Goethe did not compose his ballads in imitation or emulation of others, he certainly obtained, according to his own admission, a strong external impulse from Schiller for the composition of a number of them. In mentioning the Vampirische Gedicht, as he himself called his Christian-heathenish ballad, Die Braut von Corinth, he remarked, with reference to his other ballads, "Ich verdanke sie grösstentheils Schillern, der mich dazu trieb, weil er immer etwas Neues für seine Horen' brauchte."* The literary journal, Die Horen, appeared from 1795-1797, and it was in the last-named year, designated by Schiller himself as Das Balladenjahr, that he displayed the greatest activity as balladist. The Balladenjahr was a time of transition for both poets, and a happy preparation for their renewed dramatic activity. Before Goethe proceeded to the resumption of Faust and Schiller to the

* Eckermann's Gespräche mit Goethe, III. 210.

dramatization of Wallenstein, they both turned their attention to ballad poetry, so much akin to the drama.* The two poets collected suitable subjects for ballads, and divided them amicably among themselves; and here again Goethe's generosity and unselfish friendship for Schiller showed itself in the most favourable light. The subject of the Kraniche des Ibykus had originally fallen to his share; subsequently it was to have been treated as a ballad by both poets, but Goethe left it at last entirely to his poetical compeer, and even assisted him most essentially in working it out. That classical ballad was the second in Schiller's brilliant cycle of narrative poems, by means of which he became, whilst Bürger was the originator, the real founder of the German ballad.

The principal characteristics of Schiller's ballads, besides their dramatic movement and the even flow of their narrative portions, are loftiness and nobility of sentiments, and an impressive, though simple and frequently homely language. Goethe's ballads may, in general, boast of a more artistic finish, but those of Schiller appeal, in virtue of the above-mentioned qualities, forcibly to the best instincts of the people, and have therefore become true l'olksballaden. They have, in fact, made him more popular with the Germans than his dramas, and a number of happy sayings occurring in them have become throughout Germany regular geflügelte Worte. Besides, each of his ballads may be said to contain some wholesome teaching, but in a most unobtrusive manner, the 'moral' being self-suggestive.

* "Sie (i.e. die Ballade)," says Gervinus, "liegt ganz eigentlich in der Mitte zwischen epischer und dramatischer Manier; sie ist erzählend, wie das Epos, aber in der Art und Weise der Erzählung durchaus vergegenwärtigend, wie das Drama." — Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, v. 510.

+ Schiller's correspondence with Goethe during the year 1797 throws much light on the composition of the above-mentioned poem, and of many other ballads of both poets.

This feature it is, in particular, which has so much endeared him to the people-a fact highly creditable alike to the poet and his readers.*

Schiller has, moreover, enriched German narrative poetry by the introduction of the Romance besides the historical ballad, and what Goethe said of his Kraniche des Ibykus and of his Bürgschaft, viz., that they form eine neue, die Poesie erweiternde Gattung, may be said of his ballads in general, which both by their variety of subjects and artistic treatment, mark a decided advance upon the old cycle of ballads, however great the charm of the latter may be. There is a frequent, somewhat monotonous recurrence in the old traditional ballads of the same topics, the wide distribution of which, as has been pointedly remarked by Mr. Andrew Lang, is, "like the distribution of Märchen, or popular tales, a mark of great antiquity."+ For the literary historian this antiquity is undoubtedly of special interest, but poetry, as regards its forms, at least, is progressive, and as it was Schiller who may claim the merit of having considerably widened the sphere of narrative poetry, he may be considered the central figure among the poets of the first period of the German ballad.

Next to Schiller it was, of course, Goethe who, as has been shown above, had mostly contributed to enlarge the domain of ballad poetry. The solitary attempts at narrative poetry made by some contemporaries of the two great poets can hardly be taken into account. Neither the brothers Stolberg or Schlegel succeeded in producing a ballad which could be pronounced mustergiltig. Even A. W. Schlegel's well

"The old ballad," says Lord Lytton in his sketch of the Life of Schiller, "is but a simple narrative, without any symbolical or interior meaning. But in most of the performances to which Schiller has given the name of ballad, a certain purpose, not to say philosophy, in conception, elevates the narrative into dramatic dignity."

...

The English Poets. Selections. Edited by J. Humphrey Ward. Vol. I. p. 203.