in the equatorial forest, in the Kalahari Desert (Bushmen), and in Cape Colony (the Hottentots).

The Nigritians, comprising the dwellers in the Sudan region centering on the lower Niger River. This type is the most primitive, and is the darkest and most negroid in features.

The Fellatah, a lighter and less negroid race, scattered over the western Soudan who, prior to European intervention, ruled over the darker people of that region.

The Bantu, comprising all of the Negroes of Africa south of the Soudan, excepting the Bushmen and Hottentots. This type is very dark and negroid where it joins the Nigritians on the west, but becomes lighter and meliorated in features as it circles around to the east.

The Galla, comprising the natives of the eastern mountains and plateaux. This type is of dark copper color, with often Egyptian or Caucasian features, due to intermixture with the ancient Egyptian and Semitic races.

The occupations of the Negroes in Africa are determined by the climate and distribution of animal and plant life. In a broad zone lying under the equator, there is an immense and almost impenetrable forest and jungle, and the people here live chiefly on the banana and the plantain, which grow wild and in great luxuriance. In this zone the people exercise very little foresight, since nature furnishes them with their daily needs throughout the year.

In the broad zone lying north of the equatorial belt there is less rainfall, and not so much forest, with a dry season which permits the ripening of grain. Here the people practice agriculture, of which millet is the chief product. Survival in this region requires the exercise of foresight, since during the winter season the people have to subsist upon stored-up grain. Slave labor has been universal among these people, and one of the chief sources of supply has come from the sale of children by parents who failed to lay up a sufficient supply of grain. In this region there are cities of 20,000 or more inhabitants, where a considerable amount of trade and manufacturing is carried on. Cotton is gathered from the wild plant and spun and woven into cloth, sandals are made from cowhides, and hoes, knives, and other cutlery are made by the numerous smiths.

South of the equatorial forest there is an agricultural zone corresponding to that of the north, and here the chief crop is manioc (tapioca).

North of the millet zone the country is still more open, and dryer.

The forest dwindles toward the north and gives place to prairie. This is the great cattle region of the Sudan, and the Fellatahs, who rule over the darker Negroes of this and the millet region, here have the seat of their great empire.

South of the manioc zone there is an open, prairie-like country corresponding to that of the north, but of less extent because of the narrowness of the continent toward the south. Until the invasion of South Africa by the Dutch, this zone, which embraces most of Cape Colony, was occupied by the pastoral Hottentots, now nearing extinction.

The economic zones of Africa all extend laterally and uniformly across the continent except the cattle region, which embraces a narrow strip of plateau, extending from Nubia on the east to the Zambesi river, and almost connecting the cattle zone of the north with that of the south.

The Negroes of Africa generally have the matrilineal form of the family, i. e., the children take the name of the mother, and inheritance is in the female line. In the equatorial zone, and partly in the agricultural zones, the support of the family, including the husband, devolves upon the wife. In these zones marriage is by gifts to parents, or by 2 purchase. Chastity of women is little valued, chiefly because illegitimate offspring fare as well as the legitimate children, both being supported by the mother. Polygamy is common, but it is by no means universal.

Generally, a higher stage of domestic life may be observed as one goes north or south from the equatorial forest. One meets with instances of romance between the sexes, marked affection between the parents and children, more value on chastity, more assistance from the father in the support of the family, better homes, better clothing, and some appreciation of æsthetic surroundings.

The religion of the Negroes varies very widely in the different zones. In the equatorial belt it is animism or fetishism, involving much witchery, hocus-pocus, and human sacrifices. In the agricultural zones the religion is rather polytheistic, but retains much of the grosser superstition of animism.

In the cattle zone of the north, where the Fellatahs dominate, and in the cattle zone of the eastern plateau, the religion is largely Mohammedan, due to contact with the Arabs.

Nowhere in Africa have the Negroes evolved a civilization, but they have shown capacity to assimilate it. In the region of the Fellatah Empire, before the arrival of the European, the natives had learned to read

and write in Arabic, and had established several notable educational centers.

It is no reproach to the natives of Africa that they did not evolve a civilization, for no other race has ever evolved a civilization in a hot and humid climate. The earliest civilizations, in both the Old and the New World, were developed in very dry regions.

Ellsworth Huntington is inclined to think that the climate of Africa has tended to favor the survival of an inactive type of man. "In the first great migrations," he says, "those who went to the tropical regions subjected themselves unknowingly to conditions which presumably tended toward stagnation or even toward retrogression, for moderate activity was often more profitable than great activity, while the abundance of resources and lack of the exigencies of the seasons tended to give the stupid almost as good a chance of survival as the intelligent." "

From the earliest historic time, slaves have been carried from Central Africa by way of the Nile river, the Red Sea, and the Desert of Sahara, into Egypt and Arabia. After the rise of Mohammedanism, Negro slaves were imported into all of the Mohammedan States. The explorer Barth says that one could almost find his way across the Desert of Sahara by the skeletons of slaves strewn along the caravan routes. The beginning of European activity in the slave trade dates back to the fifteenth century, when explorers, under the inspiration of Prince Henry of Portugal, went forth to find an ocean passage to the East. In 1441 one of the Portuguese ships anchored off the Sahara coast and brought back five black captives, who were not Negroes, but Moors. Soon thereafter a ship advanced as far south as the Senegal river, and captured and brought back to Portugal a number of Negroes. In 1444 the Portuguese began systematic exploration along the African coast for the purpose of capturing and trading in Negro slaves.

After the discovery of the New World and its colonization by white people, Negro slaves began to be imported to supply the demand for labor. Then the slave trade was taken up by the Spanish, the English, the French, and the Dutch. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries slave ships fairly swarmed at the mouth of every river from the Senegal to the Congo.

At first the slave ships obtained their cargo by captures made by night-surprises and the burning of coastal villages. Later the trading companies of each nation came to have permanent settlements on the coast, and to buy the slaves from native dealers. The rum, firearms, Op. cit., p. 46.

calico, beads, and so forth offered in exchange for slaves inflamed the avarice of the native kings, and they set out with organized armies to raid their neighbors and make captives. When a sufficient number of captives had been procured, they would be shackled and carried down to the coast in boats or overland in "coffles." Upon their arrival at the coast, an agent of the slave-trading company would make purchases, brand the slaves, and place them in a stockade to await the arrival of a slave ship.

In the eighteenth century, ships from the colonies of North America began to engage in African slave trade. From the ports of Boston and Newport, ships laden with rum would set sail for Africa, where the rum would be exchanged for slaves. Then the slaves would be carried to the West Indies and exchanged for molasses to make more rum. Later, ships from New York, Charleston, and other Atlantic ports also took part in the trade. And, in spite of the action of the United States government in prohibiting the foreign slave trade after 1808, clandestine trips from the Atlantic ports continued to bring in slaves from the West Indies and from Africa until the Civil War.

Beginning about 1510, Negro slaves were successively introduced into the Spanish, British, French, and Danish West Indies, and into Portuguese Brazil, their chief labor being the raising of sugar-cane for the manufacture of molasses and rum. The black codes, intended for the regulation of slavery in each colony, were formulated in the respective mother countries and varied in details, but the actual treatment of the slaves depended upon local sentiment and custom, and was substantially the same under any of the codes. Because of the preponderance of male slaves and the hardships and incessant labor incident to the cultivation of sugar-cane, the Negro slaves died faster than they were born. The shortage of labor gave a continuous impetus to the slave trade.

The most interesting and important history of the Negro in the West Indies is that connected with the island of Haiti, where to-day there exist two Negro republics, Santo Domingo on the eastern end of the island, and Haiti on the western end.

In 1540, when the gold yield of the island of Haiti, then called Hispaniola, fell off, the Spaniards in the west end of the island rushed off en masse to the newly discovered mines of Mexico and Peru. Into the vacated territory, French buccaneers, and later French immigrants, entered and in a short time, by cultivating sugar-cane with slave labor, developed the most prosperous colony of the West Indies. In the

course of several generations a large mulatto class developed, and many of this class were emancipated and educated, but were not permitted to exercise the civil rights of free white men.

In Paris, where mulattoes were generally sent for an education, there was organized in 1788 the "Société des Amis des Noirs," composed of such celebrated men as Robespierre, Condorcet, Lafayette, Brissot, and Grégoire, who were interested in the emancipation of slaves, and who believed that emancipated slaves in the colonies should have the same civil rights as the freemen of France. When the French Assembly formulated the famous Bill of Rights of August 20, 1789, the friends of the blacks in Paris wished to apply the principles of this Bill to the colonies. The planters in the French colony of Saint Domingue, aware of their numerical inferiority to the blacks, foresaw that such pronouncements from the mother country threatened the overthrow of the white man's rule in the island, and they were therefore much alarmed. They sent delegations to Paris and, with the aid of the commercial class in France, influenced the French Assembly to declare against any intention of applying the Bill of Rights to the colonies.

But the French policy in reference to Saint Domingue was vacillating, and irritated both the free mulattoes and the white planters. Early in 1791 the mulattoes of the island, led by James Ogé, who had resided in Paris and had been incited by friends of the blacks in that city, launched a rebellion, but it was promptly suppressed by the militia. Ogé was broken on the wheel.

The hostility of the mulattoes to the whites gradually permeated the slave class, and on the 22nd of August, 1791, with complete surprise to the whites, the slaves on the northern plantations arose in one great mass and began to burn property and massacre the whites. In a few weeks 2,000 white people had been put to death, and 180 sugar plantations destroyed by fire.

The French Assembly, alarmed at the news of the wholesale massacre of the white people of Saint Domingue, hastened to declare against any further effort to interfere with the white man's control of the colony. However, the new French Assembly, which met in October, 1791, was dominated by the Red Republicans, who promptly reversed the action of the prior assembly, declaring against any color discrimination in the colonies and dispatching 6,000 troops and several civil commissioners to Saint Domingue to enforce the Assembly's decree. The commissioners sent to the island were generally ardent champions of liberty, equality, and fraternity, and they took sides with the blacks. With the