and transmitted to posterity; but the minds of men, and even of the writers of history, were at that time too deeply interested in the political occurrences-the sudden and frequent revolutions of that most eventful age-to find leisure or inclination to record the silent triumphs of the Gospel. The religious character of that period, as sketched by contemporary writers, exhibits, it must be confessed, but a dreary and barren scene, nor will it be much enlivened by the retrospect of its literary history; if such a term may be applied to so unenlightened and illiterate an age.

About the middle of the fifteenth century, a manifest revival of letters took place in Italy, which had a partial influence on several of the adjacent states. This was occasioned by the establishment of the Ottoman empire in Turkey and Greece. To avoid the calamities of war, and to escape from the iron grasp of despotism, many learned Greeks emigrated to Italy, taking with them the literary stores of their native country. Patronised by the princes of the house of Medici, they established schools for Greek literature in the chief Italian cities, where many of the most celebrated scholars of the following century received the elements of their education. The benefit of these seminaries had, however, as yet extended but a little beyond the states of Italy; scarcely can a trace be discovered of this revival of letters in England, if we except the erection of several new colleges and schools for divinity in both the universities*; and the

* At Cambridge, King's college was founded by Henry VI. A. D. 1441; Queen's college, by his enterprising consort, Margaret, A. D. 1448; and Catherine hall, by Woodlark, the third provost of King's, A. D. 1475.—At Oxford, Lincoln college was founded by Fleming, bishop of Lincoln, for the express purpose of counteracting the growth of Lollardism, A. D. 1430; All Souls' college was founded (A. D. 1437) by the intolerant archbishop Chicheley, and largely endowed, in order that prayers might be incessantly offered up for the souls of those who had fallen in the French wars; and Magdalen college, by Patten, bishop of Winchester, A. D. 1458. Besides these, there were schools of divinity erected both in Oxford and Cambridge, in which the doctrines of Wickliffe were to be openly combated, and the dogmas of the Romish church defended by the most learned members of each university.

importation of some of the literary stores which Italy contained by the accomplished but unfortunate earl of Wor

cester.

One important feature of difference between the literature of this, and of the preceding, age, is, that the more abstruse sciences had fallen into neglect. Natural philosophy, astronomy, and the different branches of the mathematics, seem scarcely to have maintained their ground, much less did they advance beyond the discoveries of friar Bacon. But some of the more polished arts, and those branches of human knowledge which throw an external splendour over the face of a country, were cultivated with a considerable degree of success. Architecture attained about this period its highest degree of perfection in this country, as is evident from the magnificent chapel of King's College in Cambridge, and several other noble structures, that still enrich and adorn our island. Sculpture and painting were also progressive,. though they were chiefly employed in beautifying ecclesiastical edifices or sepulchral monuments. As the worship of images had been long since an established article in the creed of the church of England, no labour or expense was spared to obtain the most beautiful specimens of carved images, for the use of the cathedrals. and parochial churches. The windows were filled with the legendary tales of the Romish church, exquisitely painted; and the walls covered with statues and images of the saints enrolled in their calendar, executed with so much taste and beauty, as to excite the admiration and inflame the passions of the superstitious devotees. But when the error which these works of art were intended to cherish and propagate was effectually exploded, the far greater part of these costly objects of popular adoration perished with it; so that it is now scarcely possible to judge of the degree of excellence to which they had attained, unless it be by examining those which still abound in catholic countries.

This period of our history, calamitous as it was, whether morally or politically considered, is however distinguished by an invention of the utmost importance to mankind, because it has conduced more than any other to the

universal diffusion of knowledge. This was the art of printing, invented on the continent, either at Haarlem or Mentz, (for both these cities contend for the honour of having possessed the first printing press,) between the years 1430 and 1440. But the undoubted honour of haying introduced this useful art into our own country, belongs to William Caxton, a citizen of London, who was warmly patronised by the amiable but unfortunate lord Rivers. This industrious artisan printed his first book at Cologne, A. D. 1471: but in the following year, he removed to England, and became celebrated, both on account of his historical writings, and his improvements in the art of printing.

In all the preceding periods of English history, it has been remarked that literature was confined to the clergy; but in the present, there were some laymen of illustrious rank, who aspired to become universal scholars. The earliest and most distinguished of these was James I. king of Scotland; who, having been constrained to touch at an English port on his way to France, when repairing thither for education, was most unjustly detained in captivity by king Henry, upwards of thirteen years. During the long period of his confinement, this amiable young prince cultivated his mind with the greatest assiduity, so that he became a proficient in almost every department of literature. He wrote some exquisitely beautiful poems in his prison at Windsor, many of which are lost, but some have been recently published. He excelled also in grammar, rhetoric, logic, philosophy, theology, civil law, political science, and almost every other branch of useful knowledge. His principal gratification, during his tedious captivity, was derived from music, which he is said to have greatly improved, insomuch as to have been considered the founder of a new school in that enchanting science. The life of this illustrious prince was short and calamitous, but his literary remains were both numerous and valuable. Another of the distinguished scholars of that age was the earl of Worcester, who has been already mentioned, as having contributed to the revival of letters in this country, by the importation from Italy of many costly manuscripts, which were deposited in the university

library of Oxford. Though the prospects of this nobleman in early life were most flattering, he abandoned the honourable posts assigned him by his sovereign, that he might gratify, without restraint, his literary taste, and accumulate ample stores of knowledge. Unhappily, after his return to England, he became involved in the civil war which then raged; and having attached himself to his early friend and benefactor, Edward IV., when that prince was constrained suddenly to abandon his kingdom, he was apprehended by the victorious party, and beheaded on Tower-hill, A.D. 1470, in the forty-second year of his age. The character and fate of lord Rivers, brother to Elizabeth Woodville, the queen of Edward IV., were not dissimilar to those of the earl of Worcester. That distinguished young nobleman not only patronised learning to the utmost of his ability, but proved by his numerous writings that he was himself no mean proficient in literature. His works consist indeed chiefly of translations from the French; but besides these, he wrote several poems of considerable merit, one of which, composed at Pomfret Castle a little before his death, has been cited by a contemporary historian, and breathes throughout the spirit of pious resignation. Besides those noble authors whose names have been mentioned, the only two poets which flourished during this age, were Occleve and Lydgate, the former in the reign of Henry V., and the latter in that of Henry VI. The poems of Occleve possessed little merit beyond that of tending to improve the English language by correct versification, but those of Lydgate indicate a powerful genius, and much erudition.

The greatest number of authors in this as well as in the preceding periods were historians; but scarcely any of them have acquired sufficient celebrity to deserve a distinct, and much less an honourable, notice. The best amongst them was Walsingham, a monk of St. Alban's, who compiled two historical works, the one a "History of England," beginning at A.D. 1273, and ending with the funeral of Henry V.; and the other a history of Normandy, interspersed with English historical records, from the commencement of the tenth century to A.D. 1418. Besides him there were Otterbourne, a Franciscan friar;

Whethamstead, an abbot of St. Alban's; Elmham, a prior of Linton; Rous, the Warwick antiquarian; Fabian, a London merchant; and an anonymous writer, who assumed the title of Titus Livius. However necessary it may be, for want of better authorities, to consult these ancient annalists, their style is for the most part so barbarous, and their order of narration so confused and incorrect, that neither instruction nor amusement can be derived from their cumbrous pages.

In closing this rapid sketch of the literature of the fifteenth century, it is necessary to notice briefly two highly distinguished names in the legal department; namely, sir Thomas Littleton, and sir John Fortescue. The former of these is known to posterity by his learned and useful work on "English tenures of lands;" and the latter by his treatises in "praise of the English laws," and 66 on the difference between an absolute and limited monarchy," designed for the use of Edward IV. and published long after his death, which took place in the ninetieth year of his age. Of this latter essay it has been affirmed by a modern critic, that "it is a work which affords as "full evidence of the learning, wisdom, uprightness, "public spirit, and loyal gratitude of its author, as any "that is extant in ours, or in any modern, language."

Consult Walsingham. Fox. Fuller's Church Hist. Du Pin. Rymer. Dugdale. Monstrelet, &c. &c.

REFLECTIONS.

Superstition and ignorance have ever been confederate powers. The same causes which strengthen the one, tend in an equal degree to increase the other. Every additional period of history through which we pass serves but to confirm these most obvious remarks, and proves that light and darkness are not more opposite in their nature, than knowledge and superstition. Civil wars and intestine factions may, it is true, account in part for the depressed state both of literature and religion, during the