2. SIMPLICITY.

15. Simplicity of language ranks next in importance to accuracy. Words should not only be the precise equivalents of the thoughts expressed, they should also be so simple as to be perfectly intelligible to those addressed. The simple is thus opposed to the abstruse or unintelligible. The degree of simplicity desirable necessarily varies with the capacity of the readers whom a writer designs to address. It therefore varies also with the nature of the subject. In a philosophical treatise, addressed to a learned audience, it is less important than in a popular work addressed to general readers. Herein, indeed, lies the difference between accuracy and the other qualities of language. The former is constant; nothing will excuse or compensate for its violation. The latter are variable, and may be graduated according to circumstances. But in no case is the disregard of simplicity unattended with danger to a writer's influence and acceptability with his readers.

16. The neglect of Simplicity is most objectionable, and most detrimental to style, when technical terms and words of limited application are introduced in writings which are not properly scientific, or when rare or foreign words are imported into general composition. We have already given (I. § 54, I.) an example of this in the following sentence, descriptive of the effect of the French Revolution upon English politics:-"The inoculation of the political virus embittered party-feeling in England."

17. Simplicity is also violated by the excessive use of words of classical origin. It is a primary law of style, that those words should be preferred which are likely to be understood by the greatest number of readers. Native words, or words of Saxon origin, are, as regards English readers, most likely to fulfil this condition. Hence Archbishop Trench says, "Ceteris paribus, when a Saxon and a Latin word offer themselves, we had best choose the Saxon." The rule, however, it will be observed, is stated with the qualification, ceteris paribus; and, in particular, it is to be noted that the classical side of the language is much richer than the Saxon in scientific terms, and words

relating to the world of mind. In expository writing, therefore, greater latitude in the use of classical words must be allowed than in the other kinds of composition. A distinction is to be drawn, too, between words of classical origin which, from long and general use, have become naturalized in the language, and have assumed an English form and dress, and those which have not obtained a place in the current speech, and are therefore not so generally understood. Such words as creed, church, city, school, battle, war, sport, estate, sentence,-words which were engrafted on the language at an early period in its growth,belong to the former class. Such words as vigour, admonition, ignominious, congeal, amit, humidity,—for which we have excellent native equivalents in strength, warning, shameful, freeze, lose, wetness,-belong to the latter class.

The following sentence (from Johnson) is an example of the excessive use of classical words (the classical words are printed in italics):

66

Dryden's performances were always hasty, either excited by some external occasion, or extorted by domestic necessity; he composed without consideration and published without correction."

In the following (from Swift) the Saxon element predominates (the classical words are in italics) :—

"Vain men delight in telling what honours have been done them, what great company they have kept, and the like; by which they plainly confess that their honours were more than their due, and such as their friends would not believe if they had not been told; whereas a man truly proud thinks the greatest honours below his merit, and consequently scorns to boast."

In the following (from St John's Gospel), there is only one classical word:

"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made that was made.

B

In him was life; and the life was the light of men.

And

the light shineth in darkness; but the darkness comprehended it not."

These examples will show how simplicity increases as the classical element disappears.

18. It is a further rule of Simplicity, depending upon the same principle as the last, to prefer special to general terms. Special terms are more easily understood than general terms; they therefore conduce to perspicuity. They are grasped by a direct and simple act of thought, and the images they call up are definite and precise, and immediately intelligible. General terms, on the other hand, imply a complex mental act. They are the result of generalization; and consciously or unconsciously the mind in interpreting them necessarily descends to particular instances before reaching the general result. Thus when Hallam describes Cromwell as "courted by the two rival monarchies of Europe," a question is raised which every reader may not at once be able to answer, as to what "the two rival monarchies" were. Where the same writer compares Cromwell to "him who, more recently and upon an ampler theatre, has struck nations with wonder and awe," he takes for granted that his readers will see in this description a picture of Napoleon. When an archbishop invites his bishops "to engage in the highest act of the worship of God," he refers to the service of prayer. When Berkeley appeals to the Government to prohibit those public diversions "which have a direct tendency to corrupt our morals," he refers, as we gather from the context, to gaming, masquerades, and theatrical performances. But in all such cases, the meaning is reached by a complex process, and the complexity always involves more or less difficulty, and danger of error. Such danger is best prevented by mentioning the individuals either before or after the general terms. Thus we might say that "Cromwell was courted by France and Spain, the two rival monarchies of Europe." Berkeley's meaning would have been more readily apprehended had he requested the Government "to prohibit gaming, masquerades, theatrical performances, and all such public diversions as have a direct tendency to corrupt our morals."

The great objection to general terms lies in the vagueness to which they lead. If a man is described merely as a "criminal," we form only a general and indistinct notion of what he is; but when he is described specifically as a "forger," a "thief," or a "murderer," the notion at once becomes definite and clear. It is thus, too, that specific language imparts the quality of energy to style. In the language of Logic, the more specific a term is, the greater is its "comprehension;" that is to say, the greater is the number of ideas included under it. The species includes the differentia together with the genus. "Man" includes the idea of "rational' as well as the idea of "animal." Thus, also, "European," though less "extensive," is logically more "comprehensive" than "man;" "Englishman" than "European," "Londoner" than "Englishman," and "Cockney" than "Londoner." And as regards style, the dictum of Dr Campbell may be accepted: "The more general the terms are, the picture is the fainter; the more special they are, the brighter."

19. The use of abstract rather than of concrete terms is also to be avoided, especially in general literature. The limitation that was made above (§ 17), however, must be repeated here. In philosophical writing such terms are not only allowable, they are necessary; for the subjects themselves are abstract. But such works should always be prefaced with an "Explication of terms;" and even here abstract language should never be employed when simple words equally expressive can be found.

3. CONCISENESS.

20. Conciseness, or brevity of language, consists in using the smallest number of words that is necessary for the adequate expression of the ideas. "It is an invariable maxim," says Campbell, "that words which add nothing to the sense or to the clearness must diminish the force of the expression." It might have been added, that, if words add nothing to the sense, they detract from the clearness. Such words tend only to distract and perplex the mind by encumbering it with useless repetitions of the same thoughts, and raising expectations which are never realized.

21. This quality is violated (I.) by Redundancy or excess,that is, by the addition of words which the sense does not require; e.g.,

"The whole nation applauded his magnanimity and greatness of mind."

"Greatness of mind" is simply a translation of “ magnanimity," and either of the expressions is therefore unnecessary. The adjective "whole" might also be dispensed with, inasmuch as "the nation" implies the qualification; but in this case the attribute intensifies the unity and universality of the applause. We may therefore say, "The whole nation applauded his magnanimity.'

(a) A Redundancy which, as in the case of "whole" in the above example, enforces and intensifies the thought, is called a Pleonasm. This figure is common in poetry and in impassioned prose; e.g.,"I cried to the Lord with my voice."

"Cannons overcharged with double cracks."

22. The coupling of synonymes is one of the commonest forms of Redundancy, and it is unfortunately encouraged by the example of good authors. How frequently do we find such expressions as "cruel and barbarous," "calm and tranquil," "clear and obvious," "mild and gentle," "plain and evident," "joy and satisfaction!" This custom is defended on the ground that when the first word does not fully express a writer's meaning, the addition of a second word, with a slightly different shade of meaning, makes it clear; and there are many cases in which both energy and accuracy are gained by the expedient. Equivocation, for example, is often obviated in this way: "His appearance gratified the party," is equivocal; "His appearance and demeanour," is clear. But it will generally be found that the latter word of such couples implies the former, and is of itself sufficient clearly and fully to express the meaning. The first is a trial word, an approximation to the meaning which is fully reached in the second. In spoken discourse, this experimental process is to some extent permissible; but it mars both the conciseness and the clearness, as it is certainly beneath the dignity, of written style.