(a) The term Tautology is sometimes applied to that form of Redundancy which consists in the repetition of the same idea in different words; e. g., "There is a simple and easy way of dealing with such accidents and chances." But it is unnecessary, as it is often difficult, to distinguish between Redundancy and Tautology in this sense. We therefore prefer to restrict the name Tautology to its literal meaning of the repetition of the same word in different senses,-a fault noticed in a subsequent section. 23. Conciseness is violated (II.) by Circumlocution, or diffuseness,—that is, as the name implies, a round-about way of expressing an idea; e.g.,- "Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom, whenever an opportunity presented itself, he praised through the whole period of his existence with a liberality which never varied; and perhaps his character may receive some illustration, if a comparison be instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was." "Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom, on every opportunity, he praised through his whole life with unvaried liberality; and perhaps his character may be illustrated by comparing him with his master." (a) Circumlocution is allowable when more concise language might be harsh and offensive. Instead of saying, "You are telling a lie," we may say, "Your statement is not quite consistent with truth." This is called a Euphemism. 4. PURITY. 24. Purity of language is regulated by the laws of taste. But taste is a variable standard; and therefore the quality is difficult to estimate and to attain. Taste varies with the natural susceptibility, the experience, the education, of the individual; it varies, too, with the modes of thought and feeling peculiar to the age. But there must be a standard of taste, before taste can be the law of purity. We have an approximation to such a standard in the usage of those who are recognised as good authors. Not that such authors are themselves independent of taste; but the position which they have acquired by common consent indicates that their principles of style have been approved of by the great mass of readers; and their example may therefore be safely followed. They furnish us with precedents which are as authoritative in matters of style, as precedents in a law court are in matters of jurisprudence. Usage, however, is only an approximate standard. It is itself variable and contradictory. Modes of speech which one age allows, are avoided by the next. We are therefore thrown back upon natural sensibility as the ultimate standard in matters of taste. And we shall find practically that the best guide to purity of language is innate feeling modified by the prevailing sentiment of the time, as exhibited in the writings of its best authors. 25. In order to attain purity, according to this standard, it is necessary, 1. To avoid vulgar and "slang" expressions; 3. To avoid obsolete words and foreign idioms. 26. I. Slang consists for the most part of vulgar metaphors and imitative words, introduced first into the spoken language by those who affect quaintness and low humour. In an age like ours, in which so many men write without having had any special education for a literary life, these corruptions are apt to be imported into written language. Popular fiction, too, affords a wide avenue for their introduction. Vulgar words are naturally put into the mouth of a vulgar character; and such words in the pages of a standard author, are supposed by the undiscriminating to bear the stamp of his taste and judgment. Many such expressions have lately come to us from the other side of the Atlantic, and must be stigmatized as Americanisms. In a recent book of travel, for example, we find the following sentences:— "Each had an old musket which he rested against the ground, holding it slantindicularly, so that the bayonets of the two formidable weapons crossed." "What was his astonishment when he discovered that they had been so alarmed by the noise that they had considered it prudent to skedaddle." The following are examples of the same vice: "The secretary did not come up to the scratch till the close of the debate, when he more than insinuated that his master had put his foot in it.” "Many of them came readily on deck, and being down on their marrow bones, did not venture to rise till they were positively ordered to do so." Amongst the slang words now too freely used by popular writers are the following:-humbug, bosh, dodge, bore, spin, pluck, governor (father), grind, brick, cut up (review), stunning, all serene. 27. II. Harsh-sounding words are apt to be employed by men who speak or write under the influence of strong feeling. Their judgment is blinded by their passion. They use such words in what is called "the heat of debate," under the mistaken notion that they are more forcible than those which are purer and more idiomatic. Of this violation of purity the following are in stances: "Straight again, when he went from her, she fell a-weeping and blubbering, looking ruefully at the matter." "Is it not grevious to see such a muck-worm spirit in one so high-born and influential !" "Judge, good Christian reader, whether it be possible that he be any better than a beast, out of whose brutish, beastly mouth cometh such a form of blasphemy." "I left our young poet snivelling and sobbing behind the scenes, and cursing somebody that has deceived him." "A journal is a sort of hash which suits the debilitated jaws of the multitude, and the blasé taste of some." 28. III. Obsolete words and foreign words and idioms are classed together, on the principle that they are equally departures from the current language. It may happen that a writer finds in a foreign word a better expression of his idea than in any English word he can produce. But the frequent use of such words is generally due, not to necessity, but to affectation; and this is a vice which impairs very greatly, not only the purity, but also the perspicuity of a writer's language. For if it be a sound principle that men should write so as to be clearly understood, it is surely a mistake to interpret thoughts by words that themselves require interpretation. A writer is apt to suppose that words which are quite intelligible to himself are equally so to his readers. Indeed a great part of the obscurity of style arises from the neglect or failure of authors to put themselves in the position of their readers, and realize their capacity and the state of their knowledge. And as regards purity, it may be accepted as an axiom, that a writer will best attain his end, whether it be to convince or simply to please, by using words and idioms which are a recognised part of the current language. This rule is violated in the following sentences:"He expresses with almost a muliebris impotentia of language, a semi-official sympathy with the cause of freedom in Europe." "Malgré the weather, the meeting was both influential and agreeable." "Well, I do agnise something of the sort." "Above all thy varieties, old Oxenford, what do most arride and solace me, are thy repositories of mouldering learning." "Lewis the Fourteenth had reason (was right) when he said, 'The Pyrenees are removed."" Chapter III.-Figures of Language. 29. Words are said to be used figuratively when they are employed, not in their ordinary or literal signification, but in a sense suggested by the imagination. This principle is deeply rooted in language itself. Many words owe their meaning to the figures which they contain. The word "daisy" (A.-S. dæges-ege day's-eye) is a case in point. We have other examples in such words as "melancholy" (= black bile), "choleric" (= bilious), "hypochondry" (= under the cartilage), "humour," etc., etc. Many words, again, have come to be accepted in their figurative sense as naturally and commonly as in their literal meaning. "Fountain," for example, which primarily signifies a well, or spring, has acquired the figurative sense of the source of any principle. Thus God is the "fountain of righteousness," the crown is the "fountain of justice." In the same manner, to edify literally signifies to build, figuratively to improve; "depth" signifies both natural deepness, as of water, and sagacity or profundity; the "dawn" signifies both the beginning of the day, and the first rise of a principle, as the "dawn of the Reformation;" "ground" signifies both earth, and the basis or cause of a truth; and so with "head," heart," "hand," and many other words. 30. The rhetorical effect of the use of figurative language is to increase both the energy and the grace of style. Figures arrest attention, produce a striking effect; and in the act of doing so exercise the imagination. "He was a very brave soldier" is quite perspicuous; but "he was a lion in the fight," is both more forcible and more graceful. 31. The chief Figures of Language are-1. Simile; 2. Metaphor; 3. Allegory; 4. Personification; 5. Apostrophe; 6. Metonymy; 7. Synecdoche; 8. Hyperbole; 9. Epigram; 10. Irony. 32. 1. Simile, and 2. Metaphor, both involve comparison. In the Simile, one object is said to resemble another, and some sign of comparison (as, like) stands between them. In the Metaphor, an object is spoken of as if it were another, by reason of the qualities in which they agree. 1. Simile-He is like a lion in the fight. Metaphor:-He is a lion in the fight. Thus: 2. Simile: The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. Metaphor:-The Assyrian wolf came down on the fold. 3. Simile 66 As, whence the sun 'gins his reflection Metaphor: :- -The storms and the sunshine of life often |