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class in a manner well calculated to reduce that theory to practice. The foundation of this art is no longer considered by intelligent educators a myth, enveloped in the expressions, "Genius," "Practice," "Imitation," or even pen-holding, but as resting upon the common basis of all art-natural laws and principles.

These principles admit of demonstration and illustration so clear and simple that they can be perfectly understood and applied by every person to whom a knowledge of writing would be of any service.

The theory of writing may thus be briefly stated: Writing is the mechanical formation and arrangement of letters, and other significant characters, from left to right, governed at all times by two straight lines at a uniform angle with each other. These may be either ruled or imaginary, and may be appropriately termed the line of position, or slant, which is imaginary, and the line of arrangement, which is now generally ruled.

All letters and other characters used in writing are formed from two principles, the straight line and the oval, by three

distinct principles of movement. The straight line is made by a direct movement toward the writer upon the line of slant; while the oval is made by two opposite movements,one around the line of slant towards the left, forming the oval direct, or capital 0,-the other around the line of slant toward the right, forming the oval reversed or capital loop.

All letters and characters made with the pen are formed either from these primary forms singly or by combination. The small letters, (except o and s) are all obtained by cutting the oval through its center with the straight line, and uniting the segments or curves, thus produced, to its extremities, upon the right and left, by either turns or angles; each manner of combination forming the type of a class of letters.

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The small letters are by this method divided into three distinct classes, each distinguished by the kind of curve with

which the letters comprising it begin. The first class begins with the concave curve, or right segment of the oval. They are i, u, w, e, c, r, s, t, and p.

The second class begins with the convex curve, or left segment of the oval. They are v, n, m, r, x, o, a, and d.

The third class begins with the convexo concave curve, or the two segments united. The letters composing this class are l, b, h, k, j, x, y, g, qf and long s, which is the type of the class.

The capitals are likewise divided into three classes. The first class of capitals begins with the concavo-convex curve,. or the segments of the oval united in the reverse order from the type of the third class. This class comprises A, N, M, T, F, P, B, R, S, L, D, I, and J.

The second class consists of those capitals of which the oval direct, or capital O, forms the type. They are O, E, C, H, and, K.

The third class comprises all capitals that begin with the oval reversed, or capital loop. They are M, N, W, H, Q, V, U, Y, and Z.

The obvious advantages of such a classification as the foregoing, in teaching penmanship, are two-fold:

First, it enables the teacher to impart instruction in all the general features of the subject, to whole classes, and even schools, at once, by means of blackboard illustration.

Second, it enables all to become tolerable writers. It is a common and perhaps correct impression, as regards the old method of instruction, that there are some, who, appearing to have no natural taste for writing, can never become good writers, although they may evince great aptness in acquiring other branches; while others are styled natural writers, who possess superior faculties of form and imitation.

Now, by the methods of analysis and synthesis which may be employed in such a system, the relation and arrangement of the parts of letters and their combination into words, present a pleasing exercise to the philosophical or mat ematical mind, enabling every pupil to form an ideal or geometrical conception of the perfect form of each letter (which must always precede any successful attempt to represent it,) besides making him a critic and able to discover and correct his own errors; in short, enabling the pupil to become his own teacher, which is the aim of all good instruction. Thus, those who are not natural may become mechanical ones, while the natural genius can soar away among the higher beauties of the

art.

In succeeding articles, we propose to examine the foregoing classification more critically, giving hints and definite instruc

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tions upon the formation of the individual letters, manner of conducting writing exercises, and such other topics as, we trust, will interest and profit every teacher.

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION.*

No other institution has so uniformly and rigidly insisted on thoroughness of study and instruction. The example of such exact methods, both of learning and teaching, is fitted to exert a happy influence upon the cause of education throughout the land. Says a competent observer and a graduate: "The course of the Military Academy is probably the most severe of any similar one in the world." The cadets are instructed, not in classes, but in small sections of from ten to twelve each, and in these small sections not less than one hour and a half is devoted to each recitation in mathematics, science, natural philosophy or engineering, and the shortest recitations occupy at least one hour. The great characteristic excellence of the system here adopted is the amount of personal instruction given to individuals, and in adaptation to the perceived deficiencies or excellencies of each cadet. This plan soon tests and discovers the capacity of individuals. It necessitates the mastery of every lesson. It opens no way to shirk knotty points, to dodge hard problems or calculate "the chance of not being called up to-day," as is so often done in other institutions. The cadet never has an occasion to say that he has mastered the lesson, for nothing is taken for granted. He must always give the proof by himself, solving the problem or demonstrating the theorem, or stating and defending the principle or fact in clear and exact terms. In geometry, for example, in addition to the demonstrations, he must be ready, at every recitation, to draw from memory all the diagrams embraced, both in the advance and review lesson, and enunciate accurately all the

*From Rev. B. G. Northrop's Report on the Examination of the Military School at West Point.

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propositions and principles involved. He must be prepared in this way to enunciate and demonstrate any proposition over which he has passed in any part of his course. All the diagrams of both the advance and review lesson, must be daily drawn by one, if not all, in each section. The same method is substantially adopted in the various branches of mathematics, until, by frequent reiteration, the most profound principles and difficult processes become familiar as the daily drills have rendered the manual of arms.

In a recent visit to the Academy, I was gratified to find one of the learned professors occupying a full half-hour in elucidating a single point in geometry to a cadet. "Do you now fully understand it?" inquired the professor. "Yes, sir," replied the cadet. "Then demonstrate it," was the answer. The work was promptly done; but an error was discovered, and pointed out. "Try again, sir." The work was erased and quickly repeated. "You have the right result, sir, but you have omitted one step which vitiates the whole demonstration. Try again, sir." This drill was patiently continued till he gave the proof that he fully grasped the proposition by the exact statement and demonstration of it. This case, I am told, is an ordinary occurrence. No efforts are spared to meet the wants of individuals, one by one. Well would it be if more of this patient drilling of individuals, even the dull and backward, could be introduced into our schools and colleges.

To West Point belongs the credit of introducing the blackboard into the schools of this country. In none of our higher institutions of learning within my observation is so constant and happy use made of it. It is not claimed that no teacher had elsewhere "chalked" figures or used a colored board. But I can trace no evidence of the systematic and skillful use of the blackboard in this country prior to its introduction at West Point. Its utility was so obvious that in 1817 it came to be constantly employed, especially in teaching geometry. The pupils were even then required so thoroughly to master each theorem or problem that they could draw the proper diagrams on the blackboard from memory.