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Masai and Matabele consider that the only occupation which becomes a man is warfare. The Arabs of the desert hold labour humiliating to anybody but a slave.3 Speaking of the Turkomans, Vàmbéry observes that "in his domestic circle, the nomad presents us a picture of the most absolute indolence. In his eyes it is the greatest shame for a man to apply his hand to any domestic occupation." The Chippewas "have ever looked upon agricultural and mechanical labours as degrading," and "have regarded the use of the bow and arrow, the warclub and spear, as the noblest employments of man." 5 Among the Iroquois "the warrior despised the toil of husbandry, and held all labour beneath him." " Though an industrious race, the Maoris considered it more honourable, as well as more desirable, to acquire property by war and plunder than by labour. Among the Line Islanders it is undignified for a landholder to do work of any kind, except to make weapons, hence he employs persons of the lower class to work for him. In Nukahiva the people of distinction "suffer the nails on the fingers to grow very long, that it may be evident they are not accustomed to hard labour."9 This contempt for industrial activity is easy to explain. A man who earns his livelihood by labour is considered to be lacking in those qualities which are alone admired-courage and strength;-or work is associated with the idea of servile subjection. It is also universally held degrading for a man to engage in any Occupation which belongs to the women.10 Thus among hunting and pastoral peoples it would be quite out of place for him to supply the household with vegetable food.11 On the other hand, when agriculture became an

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indispensable means to maintenance of life it at the same. time became respectable. But trade was scorned, probably, as Mr. Spencer suggests, because it was carried on chiefly by unsettled persons, who were detached, untrustworthy members of a community in which most men had fixed positions. The Kandhs" consider it beneath their dignity to barter or traffic, and . . . . regard as base and plebeian all who are not either warriors or tillers of the soil." 2 The Javans "have a contempt for trade, and those of higher rank esteem it disgraceful to be engaged in it; but the common people are ever ready to engage in the labours. of agriculture, and the chiefs to honour and encourage agricultural industry." 3

Progress in civilisation implies an increase of industry. Both the necessities and the comforts of life grow more numerous; hence more labour is required to provide for them, and at the same time there is more inducement to accumulate wealth. The advantages, both private and public, accruing from diligence are more clearly recognised, and the government, in particular, is anxious that the people should work so as to be able to pay their taxes. All this leads to condemnation of idleness and approbation of industry; and the influence of habit must operate in the same direction among a nation whose industrial propensities have been the cause of its civilisation. But in the archaic State war is still regarded as a nobler occupation than labour; and whilst agriculture is held in honour, trade and handicraft are frequently despised.

In the kingdom of the Peruvian Incas there was a law that no one should be idle. "Children of five years old were employed at very light work, suitable to their age. Even the blind and lame, if they had no other infirmity, were provided with certain kinds of work. The rest of the people, while they were healthy, were occupied each at his own labour, and it was a most infamous and degrading

1 Spencer, Principles of Ethics, i.

429.

2 Campbell, Wild Tribes of Khondistan, p. 50.

Raffles, op. cit. i. 246 sq.

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thing among these people to be chastised in public for idleness." If any of them was slothful, or slept in the day, he was whipped or had to carry the stone. The reason for these measures was that the whole duty of defraying the expenses of the government belonged to the people, and that, without money and with little property, they paid their taxes in labour; hence to be idle was, in a manner, to rob the exchequer.3

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One of the characteristics of Zoroastrianism is its appreciation of labour. The faithful man must be vigilant, alert, and active; sleep itself is merely a concession to the demons, and should therefore be kept within the limits of necessity. The lazy man is the most unworthy of men, because he eats his food through impropriety and injustice. And of all kinds of labour the most necessary is husbandry. Man has been placed upon earth to preserve Ahura Mazda's good creation, and this can only be done by careful tilling of the soil, eradication of thorns and weeds, and reclamation of the tracks over which Angra Mainyu has spread the curse of barrenness. Zoroaster asked, "What is the food that fills the Religion of Mazda?" and Ahura Mazda answered, "It is sowing corn again and again, O Spitama Zarathustra! He who sows corn sows righteousness." According to Xenophon, the king of the Persians considered the art of agriculture and that of war to be the most honourable and necessary occupations, and paid the greatest attention to both." He appointed officers to overlook the tillers of the ground, as well as to collect tribute from them; for "those who

Blas Valera, quoted by Garcilasso de la Vega, First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, ii. 34. See also ibid. ii. 14; Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, ii. 413.

2 Herrera, General History of the West Indies, iv. 339.

3 Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru, i.

See Darmesteter, in Sacred Books of the East, iv. p. lxvii.; Geiger,

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cultivate the ground inefficiently will neither maintain the garrisons, nor be able to pay their tribute." 1

In his description of ancient Egypt Herodotus tells us that one of its kings made a law to the effect that every Egyptian should annually declare to the governor of his district by what means he maintained himself, and that, if he failed to do this, or did not show that he lived by honest means, he should be punished with death. Whether this statement be correct or not, it seems certain that the Egyptians were anxious to encourage industry. According to the Precepts of Ptah-Hotep, nobody should lose his daily opportunity of increasing that which his house possesses; for he is a blameworthy person who makes a bad use of his moments.5

A law against idleness resembling that which is reported to have existed in Egypt was established at Athens, according to some writers by Draco or Pisistratus, according to others by Solon, who is said to have borrowed it from the Egyptians. Plutarch states that, as the city was filled with persons who assembled from all parts on account of the great security which prevailed in Attica and the country withal was poor and barren, Solon turned the attention of the citizens to manufactures. For this pur

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pose he ordered that trades should be accounted honourable, that the council of the Areopagus should examine into every man's means of subsisting and chastise the idle, and that no son should be obliged to maintain his father if he had not taught him a trade. Thucydides puts the following words in the mouth of Pericles :-"To avow poverty with us is no disgrace; the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the State because he takes care of his own house

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hold; and even those of us who are engaged in business have a very fair idea of politics." In Xenophon's 'Memorabilia' Socrates recommends industry as a means of supporting life, of maintaining the health and strength of the body, of promoting temperance and honesty.2 According to Plato idleness is the mother of wantonness, whereas by labour the aliment of passion is diverted into other parts of the body. Agriculture was highly praised. It is the best of all the occupations and arts by which men procure the means of living. Where it flourishes all other pursuits are in full vigour, but when the ground is allowed to lie barren other occupations are almost stopped." It is an exercise for the body, and strengthens it for discharging the duties that become a man of honourable birth." It requires people to accustom themselves to endure the colds of winter and the heats of summer. It renders them fit for running, throwing, leaping. It gives them the greatest gratification for their labour, it is the most attractive of all employments. It receives strangers with the richest hospitality.10 It offers the most pleasing first-fruits to the gods, and the richest banquets on festival days." It teaches men justice, for it is those who treat the earth best that she recompenses with the most numerous benefits.12 It instructs people to assist one another, for it cannot be conducted without the aid of other men.18 It does not give such constant occupation to a person's mind as to prevent him from attending to the interests of his friends or his native land. The possession of an estate stimulates men to defend their country in arms.15 In short, agriculture renders citizens most useful, most virtuous, and best affected towards the commonwealth,16

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8 Ibid. v. 8.
9 Ibid. v. 8, 11.

10 Ibid. v. 8.

11 Ibid. v. 10.
12 lbid. v. 12.
13 Ibid. v. 14.
14 Ibid. vi. 9.

15 Ibid. v. 7.
16 Ibid. vi. 10.

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