to run the risk of being snapped up by crocodiles, and they are in the habit of keeping their materials in wellwashed wooden or earthenware bowls or in suitable baskets or calabashes.1 The cleanliness of the Dinka in everything that concerns the preparation of food is said to be absolutely exemplary. Among the Bari tribes the dwellings "are the perfection of cleanliness." " So also the Bachapins, a Bechuana tribe, are remarkable for the cleanliness of their dwellings, showing the greatest carefulness to remove all rubbish and everything unsightly; but at the same time they are lacking in personal cleanliness.*

We commonly find that savages who are clean in certain respects are dirty in others. The Wanyoro bathe frequently and always wash their hands before and after eating, but their dwellings are very filthy and swarm with vermin. The Nagas of India and the natives of the interior of Sumatra, though cleanly in their persons, are very dirty in their apparel. The Mayas of Central America make frequent use of cold water, but neither in their persons nor in their dwellings do they present an appearance of cleanliness. So also the Californian Indians, whilst exceedingly fond of bathing, are unclean about their lodges and clothing." The Aleuts, though they wash daily, allow dirt to be piled up close to their dwellings, prepare their food very carelessly, and never wash their household utensils.10 The New Zealander, again, whilst not over-clean in his person, is very particular respecting his food and also keeps his dwelling in as much order as possible. On the other hand there are very many uncivilised peoples who are described as generally filthy in their habits-for instance, the Fuegians,12 many

11

1 Holub, op. cit. ii. 309.

2 Casati, op. cit. i. 44.

3 Baker, Albert N'yanza, i. 89.

Burchell, Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, ii. 521, 553.

5 Wilson and Felkin, op. cit. ii. 46. Baker, Albert Nyanza, ii. 58.

6 Stewart, 'Northern Cachar,' in Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, xxiv. 616. 7 Marsden, History of Sumatra, p.

8 Bancroft, op. cit. i. 654.

9 Powers, Tribes of California, p. 403. Bancroft, op. cit. i. 377, 407. 10 Veniaminof, quoted by Dall, Alaska, p. 398. See also Bancroft, op. cit. i. 267 (Flatheads). 11 Dieffenbach, Zealand, ii. 58.

Travels in New

12 Snow, Two Years' Cruise off Tierra del Fuego, i. 345.

8

4

Indian tribes in the Pacific States,1 several Eskimo tribes,2 various Siberian peoples, the Ainu of Japan, most hill tribes in India, many Australian tribes," the Bushmans," and, generally, the dwarf races of Africa. But although these peoples never or hardly ever wash their bodies, or do not change their dress until it is worn to pieces, or eat out of the same vessels as their dogs without cleaning them, or feed on disgusting substances, or regard vermin as a delicacy-we may assume that their toleration of filth is not absolutely boundless.

The prevalence of cleanly or dirty habits among a certain people may depend on a variety of circumstances : the occupations of life, sufficiency or want of water, climatic conditions, industry or laziness, wealth or poverty, religious or superstitious beliefs. Castrén observes that filthiness is a characteristic of fishing peoples; among the Ostyaks only those who live by fishing are conspicuous for their uncleanliness, whereas the nomads and owners of

1 Bancroft, op. cit. i. 83, 102, 184, 231, 492, 626.

Ibid. i. 51. Seemann, Voyage of "Herald," ii. 61 sq. (Western Eskimo). Kane, Arctic Explorations, ii. 116 (Eskimo of Etah). Cranz, History of Greenland, i. 155.

3 Sarytschew, 'Voyage of Discovery to the North-East of Siberia,' in Collection of Modern and Contemporary Voyages, v. 67 (Kamchadales). Krasheninnikoff, History of Kamschatka, pp. 176 (Kamchadales), 226 (Koriaks). Sauer, Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia performed by Billings, p. 125 (Jakuts). Georgi, Russia, ii. 398 (Jakuts); iii. 59 (Kotoftzes), 112 (Tunguses); iv. 37 (Kalmucks), 134 (Burats). Liadov, in Jour. Anthr. Inst. i. 401; Bergmann, Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmüken, ii. 102, 123 sq.; Pallas, quoted in Spencer's Descriptive Sociology, Asiatic Races,' p. 29 (Kalmucks).

4 Batchelor, Ainu of Japan, p. 24 sqq. Mac Ritchie, Ainos, p.

12 sq.

5

Spencer, Descriptive Sociology, 'Asiatic Races,' p. 29. Grange, 'Expedition into the Naga Hills,' in

Breton, Excursions in New South Wales, p. 197. Barrington, History of New South Wales, p. 19 (natives of Botany Bay). Angas, Savage Life in Australia, i. 80 (South Australian aborigines). Chauncy, in Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, ii. 284 (West Australian aborigines).

in

7 Moffat, Missionary Labours Southern Africa, p. 15. Barrow, Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, i. 288.

Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika, p. 451. For other instances of uncleanliness in savages see Crawfurd, History of the Indian Archipelago, i. 39; St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East, i. 147 (some of the Land Dyaks); Andersson, Lake Ngami, pp. 50 (Herero), 470 (Bechuanas).

3

reindeer are not.1 It has been observed that the inland negro is clean when he dwells in the neighbourhood of rivers.2 In West Australia those tribes only which live by large rivers or near the sea are said to have an idea of cleanliness. Concerning the filthy habits of the Kukis and other hill peoples in India, Major Butler remarks that they may probably be accounted for by the scarcity of water in the neighbourhood of the villages, as also by the coldness of the climate. Dr. Kane believes that the indifference of many Eskimo to dirt or filth is largely due to the extreme cold, which by rapid freezing resists putrefaction and thus prevents the household, with its numerous dogs, from being intolerable." The Eskimo's habit of washing themselves with freshly passed urine arises partly from scarcity of water and the difficulty of heating it, but partly also from the fact that the ammonia of the urine is an excellent substitute for soap in removing the grease with which the skin necessarily becomes soiled." A cold climate, moreover, leads to uncleanliness because it makes garments necessary; and among some savages the practice of greasing their bodies. to protect the skin from the effects of a parching air produces a similar result. Lord Kames maintains that the greatest promoter of cleanliness is industry, whereas its greatest antagonist is indolence. In Holland, he observes, the people were cleaner than all their neighbours because they were more industrious, at a time when in England industry was as great a stranger as cleanliness." Kolben says that the general laziness of the Hottentots accounts for the fact that "they are in the matter of diet

1 Castrén, Nordiska resor och forskningar, i. 319 sq.

2 Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, iii. 75. Mr. Torday, who speaks from extensive experience, tells me the same.

Chauncy, quoted by Brough Smyth, op. cit. ii. 284.

4 Butler, Travels in Assam, p. 98 q. Cf. Stewart, in Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, xxiv. 616.

5 Kane, Arctic Explorations, ii. 116. 6 Murdoch, Ethnol. Results of the Point Barrow Expedition,' in Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn. ix. 421. Dall, op. cit. p. 20.

7Cf. von Humboldt, op. cit. iii. 237. 8 Burchell, op. cit. ii. 553 (Bachapins of Litakun).

9 Kames, Sketches of the History of Man, i. 323, 327 sqq.

2

"3

4 C

the filthiest people in the world." Of the Siberian Burats Georgi writes that "from their laziness they are as dirty as swine"; and the Kamchadales are described as a dirty, lazy race. Poverty, also, is for obvious reasons a cause of uncleanliness; "a starving vulture neglects to polish his feathers, and a famished dog has a ragged coat." 5 Very commonly cleanliness is a class distinction. Thus among the Point Barrow Eskimo the poorer people are often careless about their clothes and persons, whereas most of the wealthier individuals appear to take pride in being well clad, and, except when actually engaged in some dirty work, always have their faces and hands scrupulously clean and their hair neatly combed." Dr. Schweinfurth maintains that domestic cleanliness and care in the preparation of food are everywhere signs of a higher grade of external culture and answer to a certain. degree of intellectual superiority.S But already Lord Kames pointed out the fact indicated above, that "cleanness is remarkable in several nations which have made little progress in the arts of life.""

The factors which determine the cleanliness of a people also naturally influence the moral valuation valuation of it. Aversion to dirt not only leads to cleanly habits, but makes a filthy person an object of disgust and disapprobation; indeed, this aversion is generally stronger with reference to other individuals than with reference to one's

own person. But where for some reason or other dirtiness becomes habitual, it at the same time ceases to be disgusting; and it is often astonishing how soon people get used to filthy surroundings. Thus, when

1 Kolben, Present State of the Cape of Good Hope, i. 47.

2 Georgi, op. cit. iv. 134.

3 Ibid. iii. 152. See also Sarytschew, in Collection of Modern and Contemporary Voyages, v. 67.

4 See Marshall, A Phrenologist amongst the Todas, p. 50; Veniaminof, quoted by Dall, op. cit. p. 398 (Aleuts). St. John, Village Life in Egypt, i. 187.

Tickell, Memoir on the Hodésum,'

in Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, ix. 808 (Hos). Rowlatt, Expedition into the Mishmee Hills,' ibid. xiv. 489. Williams and Calvert, Fiji, p. 117. Waitz, op. cit. ii. 86 (Ashantees). Arnot, Garenganze, p. 76 (Barotse). Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 299.

7 Murdoch, in Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn. ix. 421.

8 Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, i. 156.

9 Kames, op. cit. i. 321.

cleanliness is insisted upon it is so in the first instance because dirt is directly disagreeable to other persons, and when uncleanness is tolerated it is so because it gives no offence to the senses of the public. But at the higher stages of civilisation, at least, cleanliness is besides inculcated on hygienic grounds.

In many cases cleanliness, either temporary or habitual, is also practised and enjoined from religious or superstitious motives. A Lappish noaide, or wizard, had to wash all his body before he offered a sacrifice.' The Siberian shamans have compulsory water purifications once a year, sometimes every month, as also on special occasions when they feel themselves defiled by contact with unclean things. The Shinto priests in Japan bathed and put on clean garments before making the sacred offerings or chanting the liturgies. Herodotus speaks of the cleanliness observed by the Egyptian priests when engaged in the service of the gods. As a preliminary to an act of worship the ancient Greeks washed their hands or bathed and put on clean clothes." One of the legal maxims of the Romans required that men should approach the deity in a state of purity. According to Zoroastrianism it is the great business of life to avoid impurity, and, when it is involuntarily contracted, to remove it in the correct manner as quickly as possible; and by impurity is then understood not an inward state of the soul, but mainly a physical state of the body, everything going out of the human body being considered polluting. For a Brahmin bathing is the chief part of the minute ceremonial of daily worship, whilst further washings and aspersions enter into more solemn religious acts; and not only Brahmins but most Hindus regard

8

1 Friis, Lappisk Mythologie, p. 145 sq. von Düben, Lappland, p. 256. 2 Jour. Anthr. Inst. xxiv. 88.

3 Griffis, Religions of Japan, p. 85. 4 Herodotus, ii. 37. Cf. Wiedemann, Herodots zweites Buch, p. 154.

Iliad, i. 449; iii. 270; vi. 266; ix. 171, 174; xvi. 229 sq.; xxiii. 41;

xxiv. 302 sqq. Odyssey, ii. 261; iv. 750; xvii. 58. Keller, Homeric Society, p. 141. Stengel, Die griechischen Kultusaltertümer, p. 106.

6 Cicero, De legibus, ii. 10.

7 Darmesteter, in Sacred Books of the East, iv. p. lxxii. sqq.

8 Ward, View of the History, &c. of