reaches to earth; their abandonment leads to "the ruin of states, the destruction of families, and the perishing of individuals." 1 The Chinese are inclined to place ritualism on an equality with social morality. Confucius himself humbly submitted to the rules of ceremony, although he denounced hypocrisy. But to him morality was infinitely more important than religion. He altogether avoided the personal term God, and made only use of the abstract term Heaven. He admitted that spiritual beings exist, and even sacrificed to them, but when questioned about matters relating to religion he was systematically silent.3 Religious duties occupy a very insignificant place in his system. "To give one's self earnestly to the duties due to men, and, while respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom." Prayer is unnecessary because Heaven does not actively interfere with the soul of man; it has endowed him at his birth with goodness, which, if he will, may become his nature, and the reward or punishment is only the natural or providential result of his conduct. Of punishments in a future life Confucius says nothing, though he maintains that there are rewards. and dignity for the good after death." The belief of the Chinese in post mortem punishments comes from Buddhism."

5

4

The gods of ancient Greece were on the whole beneficent beings, who conferred blessings upon those who secured their goodwill. Zeus protects the life of the family, city, and nation; he is a god of victory and victorious peace, who gathers the hosts against Troy, and saves Greece from Persia; he brings the ships to land; he is "the warder off of evil." But neither he nor the other gods bestow their 115, 299 sq. Réville, op. cit. p. 345.

1 Li K, vii. 4. 5 sq. 2 Lun Yu, iii. 12. 1; x. 8. 10. 3 Ibid. vii. 20. Cf. Réville, La religion chinoise, p. 326.

4 Lun Yü, vi. 20.

Indo-Chinese Gleaner, iii. 288. Edkins, op. cit. pp. 83, 87 sqq. Smith, Proverbs of the Chinese, p. 227.

8 Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, i. 59-61, 83, 107. Vischer, Kleine Schriften, ii. 352 sq. Preller, Griechische Mythologie, i. 146 sqq.

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favours for nothing; Xenophon says that they assist with good advice those who worship them regularly,' but take revenge on those who neglect them.2 They punish severely even offences committed against them accidentally, and not infrequently they display actual malevolence towards men by seducing them into sin or inflicting harm upon them out of sheer envy. In other respects, also, they are by no means models of morality; but this does not prevent them from acting as administrators of justice any more than, among men, a judge is supposed to lose all regard for justice because he himself transgresses the rules of morality in some particular of private life." "For great crimes," says Herodotus, "great punishments at the hands of the gods are in store. Dike, or Justice, the terrible virgin "who breathes against her enemies a destructive wrath," is represented sometimes as the daughter, sometimes as the companion of the all-seeing Zeus ; and, as Welcker observes, Zeus was not only a god among other gods, but also the deity solely and abstractedly.10 We have noticed above that from ancient times the murder of a kinsman was an offence against Zeus and under the ban of the Erinyes, and that later on all bloodshed, if the victim had any rights at all within the city, became a sin which needed purification." Zeus protected guests and suppliants, he punished children who reproached their aged parents,13 he was a guardian of the family property, he protected boundaries,15 he was no friend of falsehood,16 he punished perjury. According to earlier beliefs retribution was exclusively restricted to this earthly

12

7 Herodotus, ii. 120.

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5

existence, and if the guilty person himself escaped the punishment for his deed it fell on some of his descendants.1 The transference of Menelaus to the Elysian plain, spoken of in the Odyssey, was not a reward for his virtue-indeed, he was not particularly conspicuous for any of the Homeric virtues-but a privilege resulting from his being married to Zeus' daughter Helena; and if the perjurer was tortured in Hades the simple reason was that he had called down upon himself such torture in his oath. In later times we meet with the doctrine of retribution after death, not only in the speculations of isolated philosophers, but as a popular belief; but this belief seems to have been quite unconnected with any notion of Olympian justice.7 The souls in the world beyond the grave are sentenced by special judges; Aeschylus expressly says that it is another Zeus that administers justice there. For him Hades with the powers by which it is governed exists only as a place where the guilty are punished, whereas for the virtuous he has no word of true hope; 10 and other writers also have much more to tell about future punishments than about future rewards." Particularly prominent among the offences which are punished in Hades are, besides perjury,12 injuries to parents 13 and guests, that is, offences which in this world are visited with the most powerful curses.15 According to Aeschylus, the retribution which the Erinyes-personifications of curses-have begun on earth is completed in the nether world, and according to Pythagoras unpurified souls are kept chained there by the Erinyes without any hope of escape. We are, moreover, told that painters used to represent allegorical figures of curses in connection with their

16

10 Cf. Westcott, Essays in the History of Religious Thought, p. 87.

11 Schmidt, op. cit. i. 101 sq. 12 Aristophanes, Rana, 150, 275. 13 Aeschylus, Eumenides, 175, 267 sqq., 335 sqq. Pausanias, x. 28. 4 sq. Aristophanes, Ranæ, 147-150, 274.

14 Aeschylus, Eumenides, 269 sq. Aristophanes, Rana, 147 sq.

15 See supra, i. 584 sqq., 621 sqq. 16 Diogenes Laertius, De vitis philosophorum, viii. 1. 31.

images of wicked dead.1 From all these facts I conclude that the notion of punishments in Hades did not arise from a belief in the justice of gods, but from the idea that the efficacy of a curse may extend beyond the grave-an idea which we have already met with both in Vedic texts and among certain savages, and of which the supposed punishment of perjury in Hades is only a particular instance. As for the gods it should be added that the vulgar opinion of their character was not shared by all. Euripides affirms that the legends about them which tend to confuse human ideas as to right and wrong are not literally true.3 "I think," he says, "that none of the gods is bad"; "if the gods do aught that is base, they are not gods. are not gods." Plato opposes the popular views that the deity induces men to commit crimes, that he is capable of feeling envy, and that evil-doers may avert divine punishments by sacrifices offered to the gods as bribes. God is good, he is never the author of evil to any one, and if the wicked are miserable the reason is that they require to be punished and are benefited by receiving punishment from God. Plutarch likewise asserts in the strongest terms that God is perfectly good and least of all wanting in justice and love, "the most beautiful of virtues and the best befitting the Godhead." 10

6

The gods of the Romans were on the whole unsympathetic and lifeless beings, some of them even actually pernicious, as the god of Fever, who had a temple on the Palatine hill, and the god of Ill-Fortune, who had an altar on the Esquiline hill. The relations between the gods

Idem, Bellerophon, 17 (Fragmenta, 300).

6 Plato, Respublica, ii. 379 sq.

7 Idem, Phaedrus, p. 247. Idem, Timæus, p. 29.

8 Idem, Respublica, ii. 364 sqq. Idem, Leges, x. 905 sqq. ; xii. 948.

Idem, Respublica, ii. 379 sq. Cf. Aeschylus, Agamemnon, 176 sqq. 10 Plutarch, De defectu oraculorum, 24. See also Idem, De adulatore et amico, 22.

11 Cicero, De natura deorum, iii. 25.

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and their worshippers were cold, ceremonial, legal. The chief thing was not to break "the peace of the gods," or, when it was broken, to restore it. They were rendered propitious by "sanctity" and "piety." But sanctity was defined as "the knowledge of how we ought to worship them," and piety was only "justice towards the gods," the return for benefits received; Cicero asks, "What piety is due to a being from whom you receive nothing?" The divine law, fas, was distinguished from the human law, jus. To the former belonged not only the religious rites but the duties to the dead, as also the duties to certain living individuals.* individuals. Offences against parents were avenged by the divi parentum; the duty of hospitality was enforced by the dii hospitales and Jupiter; 6 boundaries were protected by Jupiter Terminalis and Terminus; and Jupiter, Dius Fidius, and Fides, were the guardians of sworn faith.8

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The god of Israel was a powerful protector of his chosen people, but he was a severe master who inspired more fear than love. In the pre-prophetic period at least, he was no model of goodness. He had unaccountable moods, his wrath often resembled "rather the insensate violence of angered nature, than the reasonable indignation of a moralised personality as appears, for instance, from the suggestion of David that Saul's undeserved enmity might be due to the incitement of God.10 At the same time his severity was also a guardian of human relationships. It turned against children who were disrespectful to their parents, against murderers, adulterers, thieves, false witnesses-indeed, the whole criminal law was a revelation of the Lord. He was moreover a protector of