facts inherent in progressive civilisation. In simple societies the unearned income is small, because no fortunes exist, and the wants of those who are incapable of earning their own livelihood are provided for by the system of mutual aid. Progress in culture, on the other hand, has been accompanied by a more unequal distribution of wealth, and also by a decrease of social solidarity as a result of the increase and greater differentiation of the social unit. The unearned income has grown larger, the disproportion between the returns on capital and the reward for labour has in many cases become enormous, and hand in hand with the opulence of some goes the destitution of others. At the same time the injustice of prerogatives based on birth or fortune is keenly felt, the dignity of labour is recognised, and the working-classes are every day becoming more conscious both of their power and their rights. All this has resulted in a strong and wide-spread conviction that the actual law of property greatly differs from the ideal law. But much struggle will no doubt be required to bring them in harmony with one another. The present rights of property are supported not only by personal interests, but also by a deep-rooted feeling, trained in the school of tradition, that it would be iniquitous of the State to interfere with individuals' long-established claims to use at their pleasure the objects of wealth. The new scheme, on the other hand, derives strength from the fact that it aims at rectifying legal rights in accordance with existing needs, and that it lays stress on a method of acquisition which more than any other seems to appeal to the natural sense of justice in man. We are utterly unable to foresee in detail the issue of this struggle. But that the law of property will sooner or later undergo a radical change must be obvious to every one who realises that, though ideas of right and wrong may for some time outlive the conditions from which they sprang, they cannot do so for ever.

CHAPTER XXX

THE REGARD FOR TRUTH AND GOOD FAITH

THE regard for truth implies in the first place that we ought to abstain from lying, that is, a wilful misrepresentation of facts, by word or deed, with the intention of producing a false belief. Closely connected with this duty is that of good faith or fidelity to promises, which requires that we should make facts correspond with our emphatic assertions as to our conduct in the future. Within certain limits these duties seem to be universally recognised, though the censure passed on the transgressor varies extremely in degree. But there are also many cases in which untruthfulness and bad faith are looked upon with indifference, or even held laudable or obligatory.

Various uncivilised races are conspicuous for their great regard for truth; of some savages it is said that not even the most trying circumstances can induce them to tell a lie. Among others, again, falsehood is found to be a prevailing vice and the successful lie a matter of popular admiration.

All authorities agree that the Veddahs of Ceylon are models of veracity. They are proverbially truthful and honest."1 They think it perfectly inconceivable that any person should say anything which is not true.2 Mr. Nevill writes, "I never knew a true Vaedda to tell a lie, and the Sinhalese give them the same character.”3 Messrs. Sarasin had a similar ex

1 Bailey, 'Wild Tribes of the Veddahs of Ceylon,' in Trans. Ethn. Soc. N.S. ii. 291.

2 Hartshorne, in Indian Antiquary, viii. 320.

3 Nevill, in Taprobanian, i. 193.

perience:"The genuine Wood-Wedda always speaks the truth; we never heard a lie from any of them; all their statements are short and true."1 A Veddah who had committed murder and was tried for it, instead of telling a lie in order to escape punishment, said simply nothing.2

Other instances of extreme truthfulness are provided by various uncivilised tribes in India. The Saoras of the province of Madras, "like most of the hill people, . . . are not inclined to lying. If one Saora kill another he admits it at once and tells why he killed him."3 The highlander of Central India is described as "the most truthful of beings, and rarely denies either a money obligation or a crime really chargeable against him." A true Gond "will commit a murder, but he will not tell a lie." The Kandhs, says Macpherson, "are, I believe, inferior in veracity to no people in the world. . . . It is in all cases imperative to tell the truth, except when deception is necessary to save the life of a guest.' And to break a solemn pledge of friendship is, in their opinion, one of the greatest sins a man can commit. The Korwás inhabiting the highlands of Sirgúja--though they show great cruelty in committing robberies, putting to death the whole of the party attacked, even when unresisting-" have what one might call the savage virtue of truthfulness to an extraordinary degree, and, rightly accused, will at once confess and give you every required detail of the crime."8 The Santals are noted for veracity and fidelity to their word even in the most trying circumstances.9 A Kurubar "always speaks the truth." 10 Among the Hos "a reflection on a man's honesty or veracity may be sufficient to send him to self-destruction." 11 Among the Angami Nagas simple truth is highly regarded; it is rare for a statement to be made on oath, and rarer still for it to be false.12 In the Chittagong Hills the Tipperahs are the only people among whom Captain Lewin

1 Sarasin, Forschungen auf Ceylon, iii. 541. Cf. ibid. iii. 542 sq.; Schmidt, Ceylon, p. 276.

2 Sarasin, op. cit. iii. 543. 3 Fawcett, Saoras, p. 17.

Forsyth, Highlands of Central India, p. 164. Cf. ibid. p. 361; Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official, ii. 109; Hislop, Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces, p. I.

5 Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 284. Cf. Forsyth, op. cit. p. 155. Macpherson, Religious Opinions and Observances of the Khonds,' in

has met with meanness and lying; 1 and they, too, have previously been said to be, "as a rule, truthful and simpleminded.2 The Karens of Burma have the following traditional precept :-" Do not speak falsehood. What you do not know, do not speak. Liars shall have their tongues cut out." Among the Bannavs of Cambodia "severe penalties, such as slavery or exile, are imposed for lying." 4

The Andaman Islanders call falsehood yubda, that is, sin or wrong-doing. The natives of Car Nicobar are not only very honest, but "the accusation of untruthfulness brings them up in arms immediately." The Dyaks of Borneo are praised for their honesty and great regard for truth.8 Mr. Bock states that if they could not satisfactorily reply to his questions they hesitated to answer at all, and that if he did not always get the whole truth he always got at least nothing but the truth from them. Veracity is a characteristic of the Alfura of Halmahera 10 and the Bataks of Sumatra, who only in cases of urgent necessity have recourse to a lie." The Javanese, says Crawfurd, are honourably distinguished from all the civilised nations of Asia by a regard for truth." 12 "In their intercourse with society," Raffles observes, "they display, in a high degree, the virtues of honesty, plain dealing, and candour. Their ingenuousness is such that, as the first Dutch authorities have acknowledged, prisoners brought to the bar on criminal charges, if really guilty, nine times out of ten confess, without disguise or equivocation, the full extent and exact circumstances of their offences, and communicate, when required, more information on the matter at issue than all the rest of the evidence." 13 Among the natives

1 Lewin, Wild Races of SouthEastern India, p. 191.

2 Browne, quoted by Dalton, op. cit. p. 110.

3 Smeaton, Loyal Karens of India, P. 254.

4 Comte,quoted by Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia, and Laos, ii. 27. For the truthfulness of the uncivilised races of India see also Sleeman, op. cit. ii. 110 sqq.; Dalton, op. cit. p. 256 (Oraons); Crooke, Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces, ii. 478 (Hâbûra); Fraser, Tour through the Himala Mountains, pp. 264 (inhabitants of Kunawur), 335 (Bhoteas); Iyer, in the Madras Government Museum's Bulletin, iv. 73 (Nayādis of Malabar); Walhouse, Account of a Leaf-wearing Tribe on

1

of the Malay Archipelago there are some further instances of trustworthy and truthful peoples; 1 whereas others are described as distrustful and regardless of truth. Thus the natives of Timor-laut lie without compunction when they think they can escape detection,3 and of the Niase it is said that "truth is their bitter enemy." "4

Veracity and probity were conspicuous virtues among various uncivilised peoples belonging to the Russian Empire. Georgi, whose work dates from the eighteenth century, says of the Chuvashes that they "content themselves with a simple affirmation or denial, and always keep their word"; 5 of the Barabinzes, that "lying, duplicity, and fraud, are unknown among them"; of the Tunguses, that they "always appear to be what they really are," and that "lying seems to them the absurdest thing in the world, which prevents them being either suspicious or necessitated to accompany their affirmations by oaths or solemn protestations"; of the Kurilians, that they always speak the truth "with the most scrupulous fidelity."8 Castrén states that the Zyrians, like the Finnish tribes generally, are trustworthy and honest, and that the Ostyaks have no other oaths but those of purgation. Among them "witnesses never take the oath, but their words are unconditionally believed in, and everybody, with the exception of lunatics, is allowed to give evidence. Children may witness. against their parents, brothers against brothers, a husband against his wife, and a wife against her husband." 10

The Aleuts were highly praised by Father Veniaminof for their truthfulness :-"These people detest lying, and never spread false rumours. . . . They are very much offended if any one doubts their word." They "despise hypocrisy in every respect," and " do not flatter nor make empty promises, even in order to escape reproof." 11 The regard in which truth is held by the Eskimo seems to vary among different tribes. Armstrong blames the Western Eskimo for being much