2

simply utters a word which means "friendship." The goodwill is often directly expressed in the form of a wish, like our "Good day!" Good night!" Among the Hebrews the salutation at meeting or entering another's house seems at first to have consisted most commonly in an inquiry after mutual welfare, but in later times "Health!" or "Peace to thee!" became the current greeting. According to the Laws of Manu, a Brâhmana should be saluted, "May thou be long-lived, O gentle one!" The Greeks said xaîpe ("Be joyful!"); the Romans, Salve! ("Be in health!") especially on meeting, and Vale! ("Be well ") on parting. The good wish may have the form of a prayer. The Moors say, "May God give thee peace!" "May God give thee a good night! and the English "Good-bye" and the French Adieu are prayers curtailed by the progress of time. But there is no foundation for Professor Wundt's assertion that "the words employed in greeting are one and all prayer formulæ in a more or less rudimentary state.' A salutation may, finally, be a verbal profession of subjection, as the Swedish "Ödmjukaste tjenare," that is, (I am your)" most humble

servant."

Salutations may consist not only in words spoken, but in conventional gestures, either accompanied by some verbal expression or performed silently. They may be tokens of submission or reverence, as cowering, crouching, and bowing. Or they may originally have been signs of disarming or defencelessness, as uncovering some particular portion of the body. Von Jhering suggests that the offering of the hand belongs to the same group of salutations, its object being to indicate that the other person has nothing to fear; but in many cases at least handshaking seems to have the same origin as other ceremonies con

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sisting in bodily contact. Salutatory gestures may express not only absence of evil intentions but positive friendliness; among respectable Moors it is a common mode of greeting that each party places his right hand on his heart to indicate, as Jackson puts it, "that part to be the residence of the friend."1 Various forms of salutation by contact, such as clasping, embracing, kissing, and sniffing, are obviously direct expressions of affection; and we can hardly doubt that the joining of hands serves a similar object when we find it combined with other tokens of goodwill. Among some of the Australian natives friends, on meeting after an absence, "will kiss, shake hands, and sometimes cry over one another." 3 In Morocco equals salute each other by joining their hands with a quick motion, separating them immediately, and kissing each his own hand. The Soolimas, again, place the palms of the right hands together, carry them then to the forehead, and from thence to the left side of the chest.* But bodily union is also employed as a method of transferring either blessings or conditional curses, and it seems probable that certain salutatory acts have vaguely or distinctly such transference in view. Among the Masai, who spit on each other both when they meet and when they part, spitting "expresses the greatest goodwill and the best of wishes"; and in a previous chapter I have endeavoured to show that the object of various reception ceremonies is to transfer a conditional curse to the stranger who is received as a guest. On the same principle as underlies these ceremonies, handshaking may be a means of joining in compact, analogous to a common meal and the blood-covenant.8

5

Being an homage rendered to other persons' self-regard

ing pride, the rule of politeness is naturally most exacting in relation to superiors. Many of its forms have, in fact, originated in humble or respectful behaviour towards rulers, masters, or elders, and, often in a modified shape, become common between equals after they have lost their original meaning. It has been noticed that the cruelty of despots always engenders politeness, whereas the freest nations are generally the rudest in manners.2 Politeness is further in a special degree shown by men to women, not only among ourselves, but even among many savages ; 3 in this case courtesy is connected with courtship. Strangers or remote acquaintances, also, have particular claims to be treated with civility, whereas politeness is of little moment in the intercourse of friends; it imitates kindness, and is resorted to where the genuine feeling is wanting.* And in the capacity of guest, the stranger is often for the time being flattered with exquisite marks of honour, for reasons which have been stated in another connection.

CHAPTER XXXIII

REGARD FOR OTHER PERSONS' HAPPINESS IN GENERALGRATITUDE-PATRIOTISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM

IN previous chapters we have dealt with moral ideas concerning various modes of conduct which have reference to other men's welfare-to their life or bodily comfort, their liberty, property, knowledge of truth, or self-regarding pride. But the list of duties which we owe to our fellow-creatures is as yet by no means complete. Any act, forbearance, or omission, which in some way or other diminishes or increases their happiness may on that account become a subject of moral blame or praise, being apt to call forth sympathetic retributive emotions.

To do good to others is a rule which has been inculcated by all the great teachers of morality. According to Confucius, benevolence is the root of righteousness and a leading characteristic of perfect virtue. In the Taouist 'Book of Secret Blessings' men are enjoined to be compassionate and loving, and to devote their wealth to the good of their fellow-men.2 The moralists of ancient India teach that we should with our life, means, understanding, and speech, seek to advance the welfare of other creatures in this world; that we should do so without expecting reciprocity; and that we should enjoy the prosperity of others even though ourselves unprosperous. The writers.

1 Lun Yu, xvii. 6. Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism, p. 108. 2 Douglas, op. cit. p. 272 sq.

Muir, Religious and Moral Senti

3

ments rendered from Sanskrit Writers, p. 107 sq. Monier Williams, Indian Wisdom, p. 448.

of classical antiquity repeatedly give expression to the idea that man is not born for himself alone, but should assist his fellow-men to the best of his ability. In the Old Testament we meet with the injunction, "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself"; and this was declared by Christ to be of equal importance with the commandment, “ Thou shalt love the Lord thy God." 3

To a reflecting mind it is obvious that the moral value of beneficence exclusively lies in the benevolent motive, and that there is nothing praiseworthy in promoting the happiness of others from selfish considerations. Confucius taught that self must be conquered before a man can be perfectly virtuous. According to Lao-Tsze, self-abnegation is the cardinal rule for both the sovereign and the people. Selfdenial is the chief demand of the Gospel, and is emphasised as a supreme duty by Islam. Generally speaking, the merit attached to a good action is proportionate to the self-denial which it costs the agent. This follows from the nature of moral approval in its capacity of a retributive emotion, as is proved by the fact that the degree of gratitude felt towards a benefactor is in a similar way influenced by the deprivation to which he subjects himself. On the other hand, there is considerable variety of opinion, even among ourselves, as to the dictates of duty, in cases where our own interests conflict with those of our fellow

To Professor Sidgwick it is a moral axiom that “I ought not to prefer my own lesser good to the greater good of another." According to Hutcheson, we do not condemn those as evil who will not sacrifice their private interest to the advancement of the positive good of others, "unless the private interest be very small, and the publick good very great."

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The idea that it is bad to cause harm to others and