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highest monkeys to the savage and barbarous races of men, we meet with the same phenomenon. In the human race the family consisting of father, mother, and offspring is probably a universal institution, whether founded on a monogamous, polygynous, or polyandrous marriage. And, as among the lower animals having the same habit, whilst the immediate care of the children chiefly belongs to the mother, the father is the guardian of the family.'

The stimuli to which the paternal instinct responds are apparently derived from the same circumstances as those which call into activity the maternal instinct, that is, the helplessness and the nearness of the offspring. Wherever this instinct exists, the father is near his young from the beginning, living together with the mother. And here again the sentimental response is in all probability the result of a process of natural selection, which has preserved a mental disposition necessary for the existence of the species. Among birds paternal care is indispensable. Equal and continual warmth is the first requirement for the development of the embryo and the preservation of the young ones; and for this the mother almost always wants the assistance of the father, who provides her with necessaries, and sometimes relieves her of the brooding. Among mammals, again, whilst the young at their tenderest age can never do without the mother, the father's aid is generally not required. That the Primates form an exception to this rule is probably due to the small number of young, the female bringing forth but one at a time, and besides, among the highest apes and in man, to the long period of infancy. If this is true we may assume that the paternal instinct occurred in primitive man, as it occurs, more or less strongly developed, among the anthropoid apes and among existing

savages.

By origin closely allied to the paternal feeling is the attachment between individuals of different sex, which

1 Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, p. 14 sqq.

2 See ibid. p. 20 sqq.; Fiske, Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, ii. 342 sq.

induces male and female to remain with one another beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of the offspring. It is obvious that, where the generative power is restricted to a certain season-a peculiarity which primitive man seems to have shared with other mammals1

it cannot be the sexual instinct that causes the prolonged union of the sexes, nor can I conceive any other egoistic motive that could account for this habit. Considering that the union lasts till after the birth of the offspring and that it is accompanied with parental care, I conclude that it is for the benefit of the young that male and female continue to live together. The tie which joins them seems therefore, like parental affection, to be an instinct developed through natural selection. The tendency to feel some attachment to a being which has been. the cause of pleasure-in this case sexual pleasure—is undoubtedly at the bottom of this instinct. Such a feeling may originally have induced the sexes to remain united and the male to protect the female even after the sexual desire was gratified; and if procuring great advantage to the species in the struggle for existence, conjugal attachment would naturally have developed into a specific characteristic.

We have reason to believe that the germ of this sentiment occurred already in our earliest human ancestors, that marriage, in the natural history sense of the term, is a habit transmitted to man from some ape-like progenitor. In the course of evolution conjugal affection has increased both in intensity and complexity; but advancement in civilisation has not at every step been favourable to its development. When restricted to men only, a higher culture on the contrary tends to alienate husband and wife, as is the case in Eastern countries and as was the case in ancient Greece. Another fact leading to conjugal apathy is the custom which compels the women before marriage to live strictly apart from the men. In China it often happens that the parties have not even seen each Westermarck, op. cit. ch. ii. 2 Ibid. op. cit. chs. i., iii.

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voolic de re Con ga ure is pott a case at an effect of monogamy; 320 # we st2. See subsequent r, the course of cialisation Soes not peruute & strada progress towers shitter monogamy. The bicons about wides 150 infance the etoodions felt towards them; and we have noticed that the great to gons of the world save generally held them in Little regard' In ts a dereliped firm the passion which unites the sexes is pentaps the most compound of all buman feelings. Mr. Spencer this sums up the masterly analysis he has given of Round the physical feeling forming the nudeos of the whole, are gathered the feelings produced by personal beauty, that constituting simple attachment, those of reverence, of love, of approbation, of self-esteem, of property, of love of free་ dom, of sympathy. These, all greatly exalted, and severally tending to reflect their excitements on one another, unite to form the mental state we call love.'

The duration of conjugal and parental feelings varies extremely. Most birds, with the exception of those belonging to the Gallinaceous family, when pairing do so once for all till either one or the other dies; whereas among the mammals man and possibly some apes are the only species whose conjugal unions last any considerable time after the birth of the offspring. Among many of the lower races of men lifelong marriages seem to be the rule, and among a few separation is said to be entirely unknown; but there is abundant evidence that marriage has, upon the whole, become more durable with advancing civilisation. One cause of this is that conjugal affection has become more lasting. And the greater duration of this sentiment may be explained partly from the refine

1 Katscher, Bilder aus dem chinesischen Leben, pp. 71, 84.

2 Plato, Leges, vi. 771 sq.

* Supra, i. 662 sqq.

* Spencer, Principles of Psychology,

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ment of the uniting passion, involving appreciation of mental qualities which last long after youth and beauty have passed away, and partly also from the greater durability of parental feelings, which form a tie not only between parents and children, but between husband and wife.

The parental feelings originally only last as long as the young are unable to shift for themselves-the paternal feeling possibly less. As Mr. Fiske observes, "where the infancy is very short, the parental feeling, though intense while it lasts, presently disappears, and the offspring cease to be distinguished from strangers of the same species. And in general the duration of the feelings which insure the protection of the offspring is determined by the duration of the infancy." Among certain savages parental love is still said to be restricted to the age of helplessness. We are told that the affection of a Fuegian mother for her child gradually decreases in proportion as the child grows older, and ceases entirely when it reaches the age of seven or eight; thenceforth the parents in no way meddle with the affairs of their son, who may leave them if he likes." When the parental feelings became more complex, through the association of other feelings, as those of property and pride, they naturally tended to extend themselves beyond the limits of infancy and childhood. But the chief cause of this extension seems to lie in the same circumstances as made man a gregarious animal. Where the grown-up children continued to stay with their parents, parental affection naturally tended to be prolonged, not only by the infusion into it of new elements, but by the direct influence of close living together. It was, moreover, extended to more distant descendants. The same stimuli as call forth kindly emotions towards a person's own children evoke similar emotions towards his grand- and greatgrandchildren.

1 Fiske, op. cit. ii. 343.

2 Bove, Patagonia, Terra del Fuoco, p. 133. See also Wied-Neuwied, Reise nach Brasilien, ii. 40 (Botocudos); Im

VOL. II

Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 219; Scaramucci and Giglioli, Notizie sui Danakil,' in Archivio per l'antropologia e la etnologia, xiv. 35.

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of a consideras e aga and have got fl possession of their rt and fasida Under DiL COCs the Infect from an early age displass some attachment to is parenta. Professor Sully tells is of a girl months dié who received her father a sence with special marks of affection, rosting a to am, vnootting and stroking his face and giving him all the toys in the room." Filial love is retributive; the agreable feeling produced by benefits received miks the Marital book with pleasure and kindliness upon the giver. And here again the affection is strengthened by Love living together, as appears from the cooling effect of long separation of children from their parents. But the f. feeling is not affection pure and simple, it is affection mingled with regard for the physical and mental superiority of the parent. As the parental feeling is partly love of the weak and young, so the filial feeling is partly regard for the strong and (comparatively) old.

Besides parental, conjugal, and filial attachment we find among all existing races of men altruism of the fraternal

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