On these experiments our author observes, that though linen, from the apparent ease with which it receives dampness from the atmosphere, seems to have a much greater attraction for water than any other; yet it would appear from what is related above, that those bodies which receive water in its unelastic form with the greatest ease, or are most easily wet, are not those which in all cases attract the moisture of the atmosphere with the greatest avidity. "Perhaps (says he), the apparent dampness of linen to the touch, arises more from the ease with which that substance parts with the water it contains, than from the quantity of water it actually holds: in the same manner as a body appears hot to the touch, in consequence of its parting freely with its heat; while another body which is really at the same temperature, but which withholds its heat with great obstinacy, affects the sense of feeling much less violently. It is well known that woollen clothes, such as flanels, &c. worn next the skin, greatly promote insensible perspiration. May not this arise principally from the strong attraction which subsists between wool and the watery vapour which is continually issuing from the human body? That it does not depend entirely on the warmth of that covering, is clear; for the same degree of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of a different kind, does not produce the same effect. The perspiration of the human body being absorbed by a covering of flanel, it is immediately distributed through the whole thickness of that substance, and by that means exposed, by a very large surface, to be carried off by the atmosphere; and the loss of this watery vapour which the flanel sustains on the one side by evaporation, being immediately restored from the other, in consequence of the strong attraction between the flanel and this vapour, the pores of the skin are disencumbered, and they are continually surrounded by a dry and salubrious atmosphere."

Our author expresses his surprise, that the custom of wearing flanel next the skin should not have prevailed more universally. He is confident it would 'prevent a number of diseases; and he thinks there is no greater luxury than the comfortable sensation which arises from wearing it, especially after one is a little accustomed to it.

"It is a mistaken notion (says he), that it is too warm a clothing for summer. I have worn it in the hottest climates, and at all seasons of the year; and never found the least inconvenience from it. It is the warm bath of perspiration confined by a linen shirt, wet with sweat, which renders the summer heats

of southern climates so unsupportable; but flanel pro- Flanel motes perspiration, and favours its evaporation; and evaporation, as is well known, produces positive cold.

It has been observed that new flanel, after some time wearing, acquires the property of shining in the dark, but loses it on being washed. Philosophical Transactions, N° 483. § 7.

FLANK, or FLANC, in the manege, is applied to the sides of a horse's buttock, &c. In a strict sense, the flanks of a horse are the extremes of the belly, where the ribs are wanting, and are below the loins.

The flanks of a horse should be full, and at the top of each a feather. The distance between the last rib and haunch-bone, which is properly the flank, should be short, which they term well coupled, such horses being most hardy, and fit to endure labour.

A horse is said to have no flank if the last of the short ribs be at a considerable distance from the baunchbone; as also when the ribs are too much straitened in their compass.

FLANK, in War, is used by way of analogy for the side of a battalion, army, &c. in contradistinction to the front and rear.

To attack the enemy in flank, is to discover and fire upon them on the side. See FILE.

FLANK, in Fortification, is a line drawn from the extremity of the face towards the inside of the work. Or, flank is that part of a bastion which reaches from curtain to the face, and defends the opposite face, the flank, and the curtain. See FORTIFICATION.

the

Flats.

FLATUS,

FLATUS, FLATULENCE, in Medicine; vapours generated in the stomach and intestines, chiefly occasioned by a weakness of these parts. They occasion distensions, uneasy sensation, and sickness, and often a considerable degree of pain. See MEDICINE Index.

ploughed grounds are never sown with linseed, unless the soil be very rich and clean. A certain worm, called in Scotland the coup worm, abounds in grounds newly broken up, and greatly hurts every crop but flax. In small enclosures surrounded with trees or high hedges, the flax, for want of free air, is subject to fall before it be ripe; and the droppings of rain and dew from the trees prevent the flax, within the reach of the trees, from growing to any perfection.

FLAVEL, JOHN, an eminent non-conformist minister, was educated at University-college, in Oxford; and became minister first of Deptford, and afterwards of Dartmouth in Devonshire, where he resided the greatest part of his life, much respected and admired for his preaching; although he was persecuted on account of his principles, when in 1685, several of the aldermen of the town, attended by the rabble, carried about a ridiculous effigy of him, to which were affixed the Bill of Exclusion and the Covenant. Upon this occasion, he thought it prudent to withdraw from the town; not knowing what treatment he might meet with from a riotous mob, headed by magistrates who were them. selves among the lowest of mankind. Part of his Diary, printed with his Remains, must give the reader a high idea of his piety. He died in 1691, aged 61; and after his death, his works, which consisted of many pieces of practical divinity, were printed in two volumes folio. Among these, the most famous are his "Navigation Spiritualized, or a New Compass for seamen, consisting of 32 points of pleasant observations and serious reflections," of which there have been several editions in 8vo; and his "Husbandry Spiritualized, &c. with occasional meditations upon beasts, birds, trees, flowers, rivers and several other objects," of which also there have been many editions in 8vo.

FLAX, in Botany. See LINUM, BOTANY Index. The following particulars with regard to the manner of raising flax, have been some years past warmly recommended by the trustees for fisheries, manufactures, and improvements in Scotland.

Of the choice of the Soil, and preparing the ground for FLAX. A skilful flax-raiser always prefers a free open deep loam; and all grounds that produced the preceding year a good crop of turnip, cabbage, potatoes, barley, or broad clover, or have been formerly laid down rich, and kept for some years in pasture.

A clay soil, the second or third crop after being limed, will answer well for flax; provided, if the ground be still stiff, that it be brought to a proper mould, by tilling after harvest to expose it to the winter frosts.

All new grounds produce a strong crop of flax, and pretty free of weeds. When a great many mole heaps appear upon new ground, it answers the better for flax, after one tilling.

Flax seed ought never to be sown on grounds that are either too wet or dry; but on such as retain a natural moisture and such grounds as are inclined to weeds ought to be avoided, unless prepared by a careful summer fallow.

If the linseed be sown early, and the flax not allowed to stand for seed, a crop of turnip may be got after the flax that very year; the second year a crop of bear or barley may be taken; and the third year, grass seeds are sometimes sown along with the linseed. This is the method mostly practised in and about the counties of Lincoln and Somerset, where great quantities of flax and hemp are every year raised, and where these crops have long been capital articles. There, old

Of preceding crops, potatoes and hemp are the best preparation for flax. In the fens of Lincoln, upon proper ground of old tillage, they sow hemp, dunging well the first year; the second year, hemp without dung; the third year, flax without dung; and that same year, a crop of turnip eaten on the ground by sheep; the fourth year, hemp with a large coat of dung; and so on for ever.

If the ground be free and open, it should be but once ploughed; and that as shallow as possible, not deeper than 2 inches. It should be laid flat, reduced to a fine garden mould by much harrowing, and all stones and sods should be carried off.

Except a little pigeons dung for cold or sour ground, no other dung should be used preparatory for flax; because it produces too many weeds, and throws up the flax thin and poor upon the stalk.

Before sowing, the bulky clods should be broken, or carried off the ground; and stones, quickenings, and every other thing that may hinder the growth of the flax should be removed.

Of the choice of Linseed. The brighter in colour, and heavier the seed is, so much the better; that which when bruised appears of a light or yellowish green, and fresh in the heart, oily and not dry, and smells and tastes sweet, and not fusty, may be depended upon.

Dutch seed of the preceding year's growth, for the most part, answers best; but it seldom succeeds if kept another year. It ripens sooner than any other foreign seed. Philadelphia seed produces fine lint and few bolls, because sown thick, and answers best in wet cold soils. Riga seed produces coarser lint, and the greatest quantity of seed. Scots seed, when well winned and kept, and changed from one kind of soil to another, sometimes answers pretty well; but should be sown thick, as many of its grains are bad, and fail. It springs well, and its flax is sooner ripe than any other; but its produce afterwards is generally inferior to that from foreign seed.

A kind has been lately imported called Memmel seed; which looks well, is short and plump, but seldom grows above eight inches, and on that account ought not to be sown.

Of sowing Linseed. The quantity of linseed sown should be proportioned to the condition of the soil; for if the ground be in good heart, and the seed sown thick, the crop will be in danger of falling before it is ready for pulling. From 11 to 12 pecks Linlithgow measure of Dutch or Riga seed, is generally sufficient for one Scots acre; and about 10 pecks of Philadelphia seed, which, being the smallest grained, goes farthest. Riga linseed, and the next year's produce of it, is preferred in Lincolnshire.

The time for sowing linseed is from the middle of March to the end of April, as the ground and season

answer

answer; but the earlier the seed is sown, the less the crop interferes with the corn harvest.

Late sown linseed may grow long, but the flax upon the stalk will be thin and poor.

After sowing, the ground ought to be harrowed till the seed is well covered, and then, (supposing the soil, as before mentioned, to be free and reduced to a fine mould), it ought to be rolled.

When a farmer sows a large quantity of linseed, he may find it proper to sow a part earlier and part later, that in the future operations of weeding, pulling, watering, and grassing, the work may be the easier and more conveniently gone about.

It ought always to be sown on a dry bed. Of Weeding FLAX. It ought to be weeded when the crop is about four inches long. If longer deferred, the weeders will so much break and crook the stalks, that they will never perhaps recover their straightness again; and when the flax grows crooked, it is more liable to be hurt in the rippling and swingling.

Quicken grass should not be taken up; for, being strongly rooted, the pulling of it always loosens a deal of the lint.

If there is an appearance of a settled drought, it is better to defer the weeding, than by that operation to expose the tender roots of the flax to the drought.

How soon the weeds are got out, they ought to be carried off the field, instead of being laid in the furrows, where they often take root again, and at any rate obstruct the growth of the flax in the furrows.

Of Pulling FLAX. When the crop grows so short and branchy, as to appear more valuable for seed than flax, it ought not to be pulled before it be thoroughly ripe; but if it grows long and not branchy, the seed should be disregarded, and all the attention given to the flax. In the last case it ought to be pulled after the bloom has fallen, when the stalk begins to -turn yellow, and before the leaves fall, and the bolls turn hard and sharp-pointed.

When the stalk is small, and carries few bolls, the flax is fine but the stalk of coarse flax is gross, rank, branchy, and carries many bolls.

When the flax has fallen, and lies, such as lies ought to be immediately pulled, whether it has grown enough or not, as otherwise it will rot altogether.

When parts of the same field grow unequally, so that some parts are ready for pulling before other parts; only what is ready should be pulled, and the rest should be suffered to stand till ready.

The flax-raiser ought to be at pains to pull and keep by itself, each different kind of lint which he finds in his field; what is both long and fine, by itself; what is both long and coarse, by itself; what is both short and fine, by itself; what is both short and coarse, by itself; and in like manner every other kind by it. self that is of the same size and quality. If the different kinds be not thus kept separate, the flax must be much damaged in the watering and the other succeeding operations.

What is commonly called under-growth may be neglected as useless.

Few persons that have seen pulled flax, are ignorant of the method of laying it in handfuls across each

other; which gives the flax sufficient air, and keeps the handfuls separate and ready for the rippler.

Of Stacking up FLAX during the Winter, and Winning the Seed. If the flax be more valuable than the seed, it ought by no means to be stacked up; for its own natural juice assists it greatly in the watering; whereas, if kept long unwatered, it loses that juice, and the harle adheres so much to the boon, that it requires longer time to water, and even the quality of the flax becomes thereby harsher and coarser. Besides, the flax stacked up over year, is in great danger from vermine and other accidents; the water in spring is not so soft and warm as in harvest; and near a year is thereby lost of the use of the lint: but if the flax be so short and branchy as to appear most valuable for seed, it ought, after pulling, to be stooked and dried upon the field, as is done with corn; then stacked up for winter, rippled in spring; and after sheeling, the seed should be well cleaned from bad seeds, &c.

Of Rippling FLAX. After pulling, if the flax is to be regarded more than the seed, it should be allowed to lie some hours upon the ground to dry a little, and so gain some firmness, to prevent the skin or barle, which is the flax, from rubbing off in the rippling; an operation which ought by no means to be neglected, as the bolls, if put into the water along with the flax, breed vermine there, and otherwise spoil the water. The bolls also prove very inconvenient in the grassing and breaking.

In Lincolnshire and Ireland, they think that rippling hurts the flax; and therefore, in place of rippling, they strike the bolls against a stone.

The handfuls for rippling should not be great, as that endangers the lint in the rippling comb.

After rippling, the flax-raiser will perceive, that he is able to assort each size and quality of the flax by itself more exactly than he could before.

Of Watering FLAX. A running stream wastes the lint, makes it white, and frequently carries it away. Lochs, by the great quantity and motion of the water, also waste and whiten the flax, though not so much as running streams. Both rivers and lochs water the flax quicker than canals.

But all flax ought to be watered in canals, which should be digged in clay ground if possible, as that soil retains the water best: but if a firm retentive soil cannot be got, the bottom or sides of the canal, or both the bottom and sides, may be lined with clay; or instead of lining the sides with clay, which might fall down, a ditch may be dug without the canal, and filled with clay, which will prevent both extraneous water from entering, and the water within from running off.

A canal of 40 feet long, six broad, and four deep, will generally water the growth of an acre of flax.

It ought to be filled with fresh soft water from a river or brook, if possible, two or three weeks before the flax is put in, and exposed all that time to the heat of the sun. The greater way the river or brook has run, the softer, and therefore the better, will the water be. Springs, or short runs from hills, are too cold, unless the water is allowed to stand long in the canal. Water from coal or iron is very bad for flax. A little of the powder of galls thrown into a glass of water,

will immediately discover if it comes from minerals of that kind, by turning it into a dark colour, more or less tinged in proportion to the quantity of vitriol it contains.

The canal ought not to be under shade which, besides keeping the sun from softening the water, might make part of the canal cooler than other parts, and so water the flax unequally.

The flax-raiser will observe, when the water is brought to a proper heat, that small plants will be rising quickly in it, numbers of small insects and reptiles will be generating there, and bubbles of air rising on the surface. If no such signs appear, the water must not be warm enough, or is otherwise unfit for flax.

Moss holes, when neither too deep nor too shallow, frequently answer well for watering flax, when the water is proper, as before described.

The proper season for watering flax is from the end of July to the end of August."

The advantage of watering flax as soon as possible after pulling, has been already mentioned.

The flax being sorted after rippling, as before mentioned, should next be put in beets, never larger than a man can grasp with both his hands, and tied very slack with a band of a few stalks. Dried rushes answer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for use again.

The beets should be put into the canals slopewise, or half standing upon end, the root end uppermost. Upon the crop ends, when uppermost, there frequently breeds a deal of vermine, destructive of the flax, which is effectually prevented by putting the crop end downmost.

The whole flax in the canal ought to be carefully covered from the sun with divots; the grassy side of which should be next the flax, to keep it clean. If it is not thus covered, the sun will discolour the flax, though quite covered with water. If the divots are not weighty enough to keep the flax entirely under water, a few stones may be laid above them. But the flax should not be pressed to the bottom.

When the flax is sufficiently watered, it feels soft to the gripe, and the harle parts easily with the boon or show, which last is then become brittle, and looks whitish. When these signs are found, the flax should be taken out of the water, beet after beet; each gently rinsed in the water, to cleanse it of the nastiness which has gathered about it in the canal; and as the lint is then very tender, and the beet slackly tied, it must be carefully and gently handled.

Great care ought to be taken that no part be over done; and as the coarsest waters soonest, if different kinds be mixed together, a part will be rotted, when the rest is not sufficiently watered.

When lint taken out of the canal is not found sufficiently watered, it may be laid in a heap for 12, 18, or 24 hours, which will have an effect like more watering; but this operation is nice, and may prove danger

ous in unskilful hands.

After the flax is taken out of the canal, fresh lint should not be put a second time into it, until the former water be run off, and the canal cleaned, and supplied with fresh water.

2

Of Grassing FLAX. Short heath is the best field for grassing flax; as, when wet, it fastens to the heath, and is thereby prevented from being blown away by the wind. The heath also keeps it a little above the earth, and so exposes it the more equally to the weather. When such heath is not to be got, links or clean old lea ground is the next best. Long grass grounds should be avoided, as the grass growing through the lint frequently spots, tenders, or rots it; and grounds exposed to violent winds should also be avoided.

The flax, when taken out of the water, must be spread very thin upon the ground: and being then very tender, it must be gently handled. The thinner it is spread the better, as it is then the more equally exposed to the weather. But it ought never to be spread during a heavy shower, as that would wash and waste the harle too much, which is then excessively tender, but soon after becomes firm enough to bear the rains, which, with the open air and sunshine, cleans, softens, and purifies the harle to the degree wanted, and makes it blister from the boon. In short, after the flax has got a little firmness by being a few hours spread in dry weather, the more rain and sunshine it gets the better.

If there be little danger of high winds carrying off the flax, it will be much the better of being turned about once a-week. If it is not to be turned, it ought to be very thin spread. The spreading of flax and. hemp requires a deal of ground, and enriches it greatly.

The skilful flax-raiser spreads his first row of flax at the end of the field opposite to the point from whence the most violent wind commonly comes, placing the root-ends foremost; he makes the root-ends. of every other row overlap the crop ends of the former row three or four inches, and binds down the last row with a rope; by which means the wind does not easily get below the lint to blow it away; and as the crop ends are seldom so fully watered as the root ends, the aforesaid overlapping has an effect like giving the crop ends more watering. Experience only can fully teach a person the signs of flax being sufficiently grassed: then it is of a clearer colour than formerly; the harle is blistered up, and easily parts with the boon, which is then become very brittle. The whole should be sufficiently grassed before any of it is lifted; for if a part be lifted sooner than the rest, that which remains is in great danger from the winds.

A dry day ought to be chosen for taking up the flax; and if there is no appearance of high wind, it should be loosed from the heath or grass, and left loose for some hours, to make it thoroughly dry.

As a great quantity of flax can scarcely be all equally watered and grassed, and as the different qualities will best appear at lifting the flax off the grass; therefore at that time each different kind should be gathered together, and kept by itself; that is, all of the same colour, length, and quality.

The smaller the beets lint is made up in, the better for drying, and the more convenient for stacking, housing, &c. and in making up these beets, as in every other operation upon flax, it is of great consequence that the lint be laid together as it grew, the root ends together, and the crop ends together.

Follows

A medium crop.

L. 2 10 oil. 3 10

Total expence

L. 9 2

L. 15

for 30 stones. O 16

6 O for 60 stones.

68

The chaff of the bolls is well worth the expence of drying the seed; as it is good food, when boiled and mixed with bear, for horses.

Balance for profit

Total produce

the

The above estimate being made several years ago, expence and profit are now different; but the proportions of each are probably the same. There is nothing stated here as expence of the canal in which the flax is watered; because that varies much according to circumstances.

It is a certain fact, that the greater the crop is, the better is the quality of the same kind of flax.

The advantage of having both a crop of flax and a crop of turnip the same year-or of sowing grass seeds along with the linseed-and of reducing the ground to a fine garden mould, free of weeds, ought to be attended to.

For Cambric and fine Lawn. The ground must be a rich light soil, rather sandy, but cannot be too rich. It ought to be ploughed in September, or the beginning of October, first putting a little hot rotten dung upon it. In January it ought to have a second ploughing, after a hard frost; and when you intend to sow it, plough it a third time, or rather hoe it, reducing the clods very fine; but make no furrows: the land must be made level like a garden; but never work the land when wet.

The seed should be sown the beginning of April, and about double the quantity that is generally sown by our farmers; if the land be very rich, it will require

rather more than double.

As soon as sown (if the weather be dry) it will be necessary to roll the ground.

forked part to receive the poles about six or seven inches above the lint; each row of poles should be two, three, or four feet asunder, according to the length of the brushwood you are to lay upon them.

The poles ought to be from 10 to 15 feet long, and strong enough to support the brush across the poles; take the longest brushwood you can get, the more branchy the better, very thick, filling up the vacancies with smaller brush, and any of the branches that rise higher than 18 or 20 inches ought to be lopt off to make the brush lie as level as possible: any sort of brush will do except oak, as that tinges the lint.

Your lint must be pulled as soon as the seed is fully formed, which is a few days after it is out of the bloom, before the lint turn yellow.

It must be pulled above the brushwood, and every handful laid upon it as soon as possible: if it is fine weather, leave it four or five hours in that manner: then carry it to a screen near a barn, to put it under a cover in case of rain; there it must be spread four or five days, and always put in the barn at night, or when it appears to rain: the bundles must be opened in the barn, or made hollow, to prevent it from heating.

a thing which must be prevented at all events. If any of the lint upon the border, or through the piece of ground, be coarser than another, it must be separated from the rest.