religious conceptions in such a way as to give prominence to their most important sides and aspects. Under the ethnographic section the ethnographic divisions of mankind are discussed and the religions found both among savages and half or totally civilised nations whose historical development is obscure, are dealt with. The religions treated of under the historical section are those of China and Egypt, the Babylonian and the Assyrian, and that of the Hindoos. Lists of books are prefixed to each chapter, which, though not complete, are sufficient to guide the student in his researches. Justice being Part IV. of the Principles of Ethics. By HERBERT SPENCER. London and Edinburgh: Williams & Norgate. 1891. Whether agreeing with Mr. Spencer or not, every one who takes an interest in philosophy will rejoice at the appearance of this volume, and hope that it is but the beginning of the completion of the great work on which its distinguished author has been engaged so many years, and which has done so much towards shaping the thoughts of the present. It is the first volume which Mr. Spencer has been able to add since laid aside some five years ago to the already numerous volumes in which his system of Synthetic Philosophy is expounded. It is somewhat out of its order among them, but it has been written as the most important of those which, in 1886, remained to be written. It covers almost the same ground as that now apparently scarce volume which the author issued in 1850, under the title Social Statics, but is in some respects different. One difference, we are told, is that the supernaturalistic interpretation noticeable in the earlier volume has here disappeared, and an interpretation exclusively naturalistic or evolutionary substituted for it. With this is the concomitant difference that whereas in Social Statics a biological origin for ethics was only hinted at, such an origin is here definitely set forth, and the elaboration of its consequences has become a cardinal trait. A further distinction,' it is said, 'is that induction has been more habitually brought in support of deduction. It has in every case been shown that the corollaries, from the first principle laid down, have severally been in course of verification during the progress of mankind.' The doctrine of the earlier volume, in fact, has to a considerable extent been superseded, and we have here Justice as a division of the ethics of social life treated from an exclusively evolutionary point of view. In dealing with it Mr. Spencer starts from the principle already enunciated that the conduct which Ethics treats of is not separable from conduct at large, and after remarking that the primary subject-matter of Ethics is not, as many suppose, conduct considered as calling forth approbation or reprobation, but conduct considered objectively as producing good or bad results to the self or others, or both, he proceeds in a couple of chapters to deal with animal and sub-human justice. Human justice, it is then pointed out, is a further development of sub-human justice, just as human life is a further development of sub-human life. The two are not different, but, as from the evolutionary standpoint they must be, essentially of the same nature, and form parts of a continuous whole. Passing to the other side of his subject, and proceeding to speak of the sentiment of justice, Mr. Spencer observes. The Egoistic sentiment of justice is a subjective attribute which answers to that objective requirement constituting justice-the requirement that each adult shall receive the results of his own nature and consequent actions.' As to the altruistic sentiment of justice this can come into existence only by the aid of a sentiment which temporarily supplies its place, and restrains the actions prompted by pure egoism-the pro-altruistic sentiment of justice as we may term it.' Among the components of this are mentioned the dread of retaliation, of social dislike, of legal punishment, and of divine vengeance. The discussion of these brings us to the idea of justice. In this there are two elements-one positive, the other negative. On the one hand there is that positive element implied by each man's recognition of his claims to unimpeded activities, and the benefits they bring. On the other hand, there is that negative element implied by the consciousness of limits which the presence of other men, having like claims, necessitates.' The unbalanced appreciation of these two factors lead to divergent moral and social theories, the discussion of which, though brief, is extremely interesting. The next three chapters are devoted to the formula of justice, which is expressed in the words: Every man is free to do that which he wills, provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any other man'-a formula sufficiently wide, and at the same time sufficiently narrow. The remaining chapters are devoted to its explanation and application. Here, however, space prevents us from going further. The volume, as might be expected, is rich in suggestions and full of striking solutions to many important problems, some of them exceedingly intricate. Its value can scarcely be over-estimated. Dealing with many questions which are now under discussion, and throwing light upon whatever it touches, it is likely to prove the most popular volume in the series to which it belongs. An Introduction to Ethics. By J. CLARK MURRAY, LL.D., Professor of Philosophy, M'Gill College, Montreal. Paisley and London: Alex. Gardner. 1891. This handy volume is an excellent companion to the author's well-known and successful work on Psychology. Unlike many introductions it is not a philosophical discussion of the ultimate concepts lying at the foundation of a science, but a manual for beginners, and is intended to introduce them to the study of the science of which it treats. In his treatment of his subject, Professor Murray has followed the earlier tradition and has endeavoured to interest the student in the concrete application of moral concepts to the principal spheres of moral duty. The work divides itself into two parts: one treating of man as he is; the other of man as he ought to be. Hence the first book treats of the psychological basis of ethics and the second of ethics proper. In the first of them man is considered in a purely natural or non-moral aspect, and those elements in his constitution which render him capable of morality, are examined and set forth. In the second the supreme law of duty is dealt with, and the chief forms of moral obligation which are based upon it. Legal obligations are, of course, left aside, and those which are purely moral are treated of. The work is naturally to a large extent historical, the principal theories which have been advanced by various schools being carefully stated and examined. As those who are acquainted with Professor Murray's previous work will readily imagine, there is no want of lucidity about the volume. It is written with admirable clearness and precision, and will be found a really excellent manual. The Caliphate: its Rise, Decline and Fall, from Original Sources. By Sir WILLIAM MUIR, K.C.S.I., LL.D., D.C.L., Sc. The Religious Tract Society. 1891. Though originally intended as an abridgement of the author's previous work entitled Annals of the Early Caliphate, with a continuation of the history of Islam down to the fall of the Abbassides, this work has swelled out into a volume considerably larger than that of which it is in the main an abridgement. No one, however, or at least we should so imagine, will complain that its author has found himself unable to compress his material into smaller space. As it stands the work is in our opinion a gain. In some parts it is more condensed and more vivid, while as a whole it is more complete. In fact it supplies what has long been wanting, a succinct and reliable account of the rise and fall of the Mohammedan power. For his materials the author, as in the case of his Life of Mahomet and the more recent Annals, has gone to the original sources, and chiefly to Tabari and Ibn Athir, though for the later portion of his narrative he has drawn largely upon Weil's admirable Geschichte der Chalifen. The story, as need hardly be said, is of surpassing, almost romantic, interest, more especially as told in the graphic pages of the volume before us, and from its immense importance in connection with the history of society and religion may well find a place in the publications of the Religious Tract Society. Towards the close of the volume Sir William Muir points out the chief causes of the weakness of Mohammedanism and its institutions, and discusses the question how far its creed is responsible for the dark spots in its history. His concluding words are worth repeating. As regards the spiritual, social and dogmatic aspect of Islam,' he says, 'there has been neither progress nor material change. Such as we found it in the days of the Caliphate, such is it also at the present day. Christian nations may advance in civilization, freedom and morality, in philosophy, science and the arts, but Islam stands still. And thus stationary, so far as the lessons of the history avail, it will remain.' It is to be hoped that as competent a hand will resume the story where Sir William here lets it fall, and continue it on to the Crusades, the Mameluke Dynasty, and its overthrow by the Osmanlies. Life of Archibald Campbell Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury. By RANDALL THOMAS DAVIDSON, D.D., Dean of Windsor, and WILLIAM BENHAM, B.D., Hon. Canon of Canterbury. 2 vols. London and New York: Macmillan & Co. 1881. It is now eight years since Dr. Tait died. Eight years seems a long period for the preparation of a biography, even when the biography is that of an Archbishop. In the present instance the biographers half apologise for the tardy appearance of their work, attributing the delay partly to the pressure of other duties, and partly to the vast mass of correspondence they had to read through, which, after all, turned out for the most part to be of little use for their purpose. Singularly enough, except during his earliest years, very little is said of the late Archbishop's private life. For some reason or other, it is his public or ecclesiastical life that is mainly dealt with. At the end of the second volume we have a chapter of what may be termed personal reminiscences, and at the beginning of the first, two or three that treat pretty minutely of his family and domestic relations, but in all the rest of the chapters it is his life as an ecclesiastic and statesman that is chiefly narrated. Of course Dr. Tait did himself give some account of his private and domestic life, but even the existence of this should scarcely have prevented his biographers from giving more space to their treatment of it than they have. Anyhow, the consequence is that their volumes lose much of the interest they might otherwise have had for a large number of readers. On the other hand, as a history of the Church of England during the greater part of the present century, their volumes are of undoubted interest and importance. The period will always be regarded as one of the most critical, and the share which Dr. Tait had in shaping and directing the fortunes of the English Church was too large 29 XVIII. ever to be overlooked. Though not endowed with any very brilliant gifts, Dr. Tait had always, whether as a tutor at Balliol or as a bishop, sufficient influence to make himself felt, and from the time of what is called the Tractarian Movement down to the end of his life, he had always to be reckoned with whenever any proposal was made, or any movement was originated which threatened in any way to affect the interests of the English Church. During his lifetime many of his actions were severely canvassed, and his policy bitterly condemned. Fortunately it does not fall within our province here to discuss them. We can only say that his biographers exhibit a very laudable desire, though not without a very natural leaning towards the Archbishop, to place his policy and conduct in as clear and impartial a light as possible. Here and there their anxiety to be full, as in the case of the Ritual prosecutions, has made their pages somewhat tedious. But, on the whole, their work is full of interest, and throws considerable light on the inner movements within the English Church. As Dr. Tait was the first Scotchman who ever occupied the Primacy of England, his fellow-countrymen will naturally be curious to see how he discharged the many and highly responsible duties that fell to him, while in England the work will be read with varied feelings, according as the reader belongs to this or that section or party in the English Church. Though brought up in the Church of Scotland, Dr. Tait belonged to a family who, in the latter part of the last century, were staunch adherents of the Scottish Episcopalian Communion, and had for their minister no less an individual than John Skinner, the famous controversialist, scholar, and historian, and the author of the Tullochgorum and other well-known Scottish songs. While quite a child Dr. Tait was known as the bishop,' and the way in which, while yet a student, his name was connected with the Archbishopric of Canterbury was, to say the least, extremely curious. Whatever may be thought of him as an ecclesiastical statesman, there can be no doubt that he has left his mark on the Church of England, and as a contribution to the history of that Church during the present century, his Life will always hold an important place. Richard Wagner. A Sketch of his Life and Work. By FRANZ MUNCKER. Translated from the German by D. LAUDMAN. Herr Muncker has been unfortunate only in his translator. His publishers, printers, and artist, have all done their best to present his little work to English readers in the most attractive form, and they have admirably succeeded. In paper, type, and zincogravure renderings of Herr Nisle's illustrations, nothing has been omitted which could have contributed to commend this edition to all lovers of pretty books. But the pleasure in reading it is sadly marred by the all too German form of the translation throughout, and the manifold blunders which Herr Laudman's imperfect knowledge of English has led him to innocently commit. To give but one instance of the latter. Herr Muncker is writing of Wagner's visit to London in 1877, and his efforts to raise money there by a series of concerts to aid him in building his theatre at Bayreuth. These concerts brought him considerable applause but not much cash. Herr Laudman makes his author say of this experiment it brought the Meister high honours and won many friends for his music, but was attended by such immense expenses that nothing less than a surplus of money was gained for Bayreuth.' This is just the reverse of what Herr Muncker says. These blunders apart, however-and most of them are very apparent and easily rectified by an attentive reader for himself this little book gives an extremely graphic and interesting account of the long, earnest, and heroically hopeful struggles of Wagner to win the place in the front ranks of the world's musical leaders to which he thought himself entitled, and which the world has now enthusiastically accorded to him. Accompanying this record of his struggles is a sympathetic analysis of the various creations of his musical genius, and of his literary essays as they were chronologically produced, giving us a charming picture of the man in his strength and in his weakness, in his marvellous aspirations and ambitions, and in the personal defects that crippled his efforts, and the antagonistic environment in which it was his fate for so long a period of his life to be. Every lover of Wagner's operas will be charmed with this little work, and understand the touching sadness, that characterizes his works as a whole, much better when they are brought into personal acquaintance with the sad story of the man himself. Rabelais ses voyages en Italie; son Exil à Metz. Par ARTHUR HEULHARD. Paris: Librairie de l'Art; London: Allison & Co. 1891. In another volume M. Heulhard proposes to deal with the life of Rabelais in France. Here, in the meantime, he restricts himself to such parts of the great humourist's career as were passed abroad. For the purposes of his work he has made very extensive researches, and during the ten years over which they have extended, has consulted many inedited and widely scattered papers and documents, some of which have been hitherto unexamined or unknown. The work is carefully done, full of interest, abundantly illustrated, and one of the best tributes yet paid to the memory of its subject. One point M. Heulhard distinctly makes out is that Rabelais made not simply one, but four expeditions into Italy. They were made in the company, or at the instance of either Jean or Guilleaume du Bellay. The narratives which M. Heulhard has given of them are full of interesting particulars. While throwing light on Rabelais' career, they serve quite as well to illustrate the history of the fortunes of the great house to which his patrons belonged. A couple of chapters are also devoted to Rabelais' retirement at Metz, and from the writings of Jean Brysson, it is clearly made out that the hmourist had a son named Théodule. M. Heulhard dwells at some length on the influence which Rabelais had upon contemporary thought and literature, and has given at the beginning of his volume a very acceptable morsel in the shape of a copy of the humourist's portrait preserved in the library at Geneva. The Story of the Imitatio Christi. By LEONARD A. WHEATLEY. London: Elliot Stock. 1891. This latest addition to the Book Lover's Library begins a series which is to be devoted to the history of books of world-wide fame. No better book, perhaps, could have been chosen wherewith to head the series than the Imitatio Christi. There is no question as to its world-wide fame. Into what civilized language have the four treatises composing it not been translated? and how constant has been, and still continues to be, the demand for new editions of it in every land? 'After the Bible,' Mr. Wheatley justly says, 'no book has been so much read or has enjoyed so extended a fame.' And the history of it is an interesting one. It has shared the fate of many famous books. Its authorship and place of birth have been the subject of debate from the hour almost of its appearance. Personal devotion to this or that writer, combined perhaps with national |